OS Agents: A Survey on MLLM-based Agents for General Computing Devices Use

The dream to create AI assistants as capable and versatile as the fictional J.A.R.V.I.S from Iron Man has long captivated imaginations. With the evolution of (multi-modal) large language models ((M)LLMs), this dream is closer to reality, as (M)LLM-based Agents using computing devices (e.g., computers and mobile phones) by operating within the environments and interfaces (e.g., Graphical User Interface (GUI)) provided by operating systems (OS) to automate tasks have significantly advanced. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of these advanced agents, designated as OS Agents. We begin by elucidating the fundamentals of OS Agents, exploring their key components including the environment, observation space, and action space, and outlining essential capabilities such as understanding, planning, and grounding. We then examine methodologies for constructing OS Agents, focusing on domain-specific foundation models and agent frameworks. A detailed review of evaluation protocols and benchmarks highlights how OS Agents are assessed across diverse tasks. Finally, we discuss current challenges and identify promising directions for future research, including safety and privacy, personalization and self-evolution. This survey aims to consolidate the state of OS Agents research, providing insights to guide both academic inquiry and industrial development. An open-source GitHub repository is maintained as a dynamic resource to foster further innovation in this field. We present a 9-page version of our work, accepted by ACL 2025, to provide a concise overview to the domain.

EC-Diff: Fast and High-Quality Edge-Cloud Collaborative Inference for Diffusion Models

Diffusion Models have shown remarkable proficiency in image and video synthesis. As model size and latency increase limit user experience, hybrid edge-cloud collaborative framework was recently proposed to realize fast inference and high-quality generation, where the cloud model initiates high-quality semantic planning and the edge model expedites later-stage refinement. However, excessive cloud denoising prolongs inference time, while insufficient steps cause semantic ambiguity, leading to inconsistency in edge model output. To address these challenges, we propose EC-Diff that accelerates cloud inference through gradient-based noise estimation while identifying the optimal point for cloud-edge handoff to maintain generation quality. Specifically, we design a K-step noise approximation strategy to reduce cloud inference frequency by using noise gradients between steps and applying cloud inference periodically to adjust errors. Then we design a two-stage greedy search algorithm to efficiently find the optimal parameters for noise approximation and edge model switching. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method significantly enhances generation quality compared to edge inference, while achieving up to an average $2\times$ speedup in inference compared to cloud inference. Video samples and source code are available at https://ec-diff.github.io/.

SAMST: A Transformer framework based on SAM pseudo label filtering for remote sensing semi-supervised semantic segmentation

Public remote sensing datasets often face limitations in universality due to resolution variability and inconsistent land cover category definitions. To harness the vast pool of unlabeled remote sensing data, we propose SAMST, a semi-supervised semantic segmentation method. SAMST leverages the strengths of the Segment Anything Model (SAM) in zero-shot generalization and boundary detection. SAMST iteratively refines pseudo-labels through two main components: supervised model self-training using both labeled and pseudo-labeled data, and a SAM-based Pseudo-label Refiner. The Pseudo-label Refiner comprises three modules: a Threshold Filter Module for preprocessing, a Prompt Generation Module for extracting connected regions and generating prompts for SAM, and a Label Refinement Module for final label stitching. By integrating the generalization power of large models with the training efficiency of small models, SAMST improves pseudo-label accuracy, thereby enhancing overall model performance. Experiments on the Potsdam dataset validate the effectiveness and feasibility of SAMST, demonstrating its potential to address the challenges posed by limited labeled data in remote sensing semantic segmentation.

STARS: A Unified Framework for Singing Transcription, Alignment, and Refined Style Annotation

Recent breakthroughs in singing voice synthesis (SVS) have heightened the demand for high-quality annotated datasets, yet manual annotation remains prohibitively labor-intensive and resource-intensive. Existing automatic singing annotation (ASA) methods, however, primarily tackle isolated aspects of the annotation pipeline. To address this fundamental challenge, we present STARS, which is, to our knowledge, the first unified framework that simultaneously addresses singing transcription, alignment, and refined style annotation. Our framework delivers comprehensive multi-level annotations encompassing: (1) precise phoneme-audio alignment, (2) robust note transcription and temporal localization, (3) expressive vocal technique identification, and (4) global stylistic characterization including emotion and pace. The proposed architecture employs hierarchical acoustic feature processing across frame, word, phoneme, note, and sentence levels. The novel non-autoregressive local acoustic encoders enable structured hierarchical representation learning. Experimental validation confirms the framework's superior performance across multiple evaluation dimensions compared to existing annotation approaches. Furthermore, applications in SVS training demonstrate that models utilizing STARS-annotated data achieve significantly enhanced perceptual naturalness and precise style control. This work not only overcomes critical scalability challenges in the creation of singing datasets but also pioneers new methodologies for controllable singing voice synthesis. Audio samples are available at https://gwx314.github.io/stars-demo/.

Device-Cloud Collaborative Correction for On-Device Recommendation

With the rapid development of recommendation models and device computing power, device-based recommendation has become an important research area due to its better real-time performance and privacy protection. Previously, Transformer-based sequential recommendation models have been widely applied in this field because they outperform Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)-based recommendation models in terms of performance. However, as the length of interaction sequences increases, Transformer-based models introduce significantly more space and computational overhead compared to RNN-based models, posing challenges for device-based recommendation. To balance real-time performance and high performance on devices, we propose Device-Cloud \underline{Co}llaborative \underline{Corr}ection Framework for On-Device \underline{Rec}ommendation (CoCorrRec). CoCorrRec uses a self-correction network (SCN) to correct parameters with extremely low time cost. By updating model parameters during testing based on the input token, it achieves performance comparable to current optimal but more complex Transformer-based models. Furthermore, to prevent SCN from overfitting, we design a global correction network (GCN) that processes hidden states uploaded from devices and provides a global correction solution. Extensive experiments on multiple datasets show that CoCorrRec outperforms existing Transformer-based and RNN-based device recommendation models in terms of performance, with fewer parameters and lower FLOPs, thereby achieving a balance between real-time performance and high efficiency.

Infi-MMR: Curriculum-based Unlocking Multimodal Reasoning via Phased Reinforcement Learning in Multimodal Small Language Models

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated substantial progress in reasoning capabilities, such as DeepSeek-R1, which leverages rule-based reinforcement learning to enhance logical reasoning significantly. However, extending these achievements to multimodal large language models (MLLMs) presents critical challenges, which are frequently more pronounced for Multimodal Small Language Models (MSLMs) given their typically weaker foundational reasoning abilities: (1) the scarcity of high-quality multimodal reasoning datasets, (2) the degradation of reasoning capabilities due to the integration of visual processing, and (3) the risk that direct application of reinforcement learning may produce complex yet incorrect reasoning processes. To address these challenges, we design a novel framework Infi-MMR to systematically unlock the reasoning potential of MSLMs through a curriculum of three carefully structured phases and propose our multimodal reasoning model Infi-MMR-3B. The first phase, Foundational Reasoning Activation, leverages high-quality textual reasoning datasets to activate and strengthen the model's logical reasoning capabilities. The second phase, Cross-Modal Reasoning Adaptation, utilizes caption-augmented multimodal data to facilitate the progressive transfer of reasoning skills to multimodal contexts. The third phase, Multimodal Reasoning Enhancement, employs curated, caption-free multimodal data to mitigate linguistic biases and promote robust cross-modal reasoning. Infi-MMR-3B achieves both state-of-the-art multimodal math reasoning ability (43.68% on MathVerse testmini, 27.04% on MathVision test, and 21.33% on OlympiadBench) and general reasoning ability (67.2% on MathVista testmini).

Multimodal LLM-Guided Semantic Correction in Text-to-Image Diffusion

Diffusion models have become the mainstream architecture for text-to-image generation, achieving remarkable progress in visual quality and prompt controllability. However, current inference pipelines generally lack interpretable semantic supervision and correction mechanisms throughout the denoising process. Most existing approaches rely solely on post-hoc scoring of the final image, prompt filtering, or heuristic resampling strategies-making them ineffective in providing actionable guidance for correcting the generative trajectory. As a result, models often suffer from object confusion, spatial errors, inaccurate counts, and missing semantic elements, severely compromising prompt-image alignment and image quality. To tackle these challenges, we propose MLLM Semantic-Corrected Ping-Pong-Ahead Diffusion (PPAD), a novel framework that, for the first time, introduces a Multimodal Large Language Model (MLLM) as a semantic observer during inference. PPAD performs real-time analysis on intermediate generations, identifies latent semantic inconsistencies, and translates feedback into controllable signals that actively guide the remaining denoising steps. The framework supports both inference-only and training-enhanced settings, and performs semantic correction at only extremely few diffusion steps, offering strong generality and scalability. Extensive experiments demonstrate PPAD's significant improvements.

Embracing Imperfection: Simulating Students with Diverse Cognitive Levels Using LLM-based Agents

Large language models (LLMs) are revolutionizing education, with LLM-based agents playing a key role in simulating student behavior. A major challenge in student simulation is modeling the diverse learning patterns of students at various cognitive levels. However, current LLMs, typically trained as ``helpful assistants'', target at generating perfect responses. As a result, they struggle to simulate students with diverse cognitive abilities, as they often produce overly advanced answers, missing the natural imperfections that characterize student learning and resulting in unrealistic simulations. To address this issue, we propose a training-free framework for student simulation. We begin by constructing a cognitive prototype for each student using a knowledge graph, which captures their understanding of concepts from past learning records. This prototype is then mapped to new tasks to predict student performance. Next, we simulate student solutions based on these predictions and iteratively refine them using a beam search method to better replicate realistic mistakes. To validate our approach, we construct the \texttt{Student\_100} dataset, consisting of $100$ students working on Python programming and $5,000$ learning records. Experimental results show that our method consistently outperforms baseline models, achieving $100\%$ improvement in simulation accuracy.

AppealCase: A Dataset and Benchmark for Civil Case Appeal Scenarios

Recent advances in LegalAI have primarily focused on individual case judgment analysis, often overlooking the critical appellate process within the judicial system. Appeals serve as a core mechanism for error correction and ensuring fair trials, making them highly significant both in practice and in research. To address this gap, we present the AppealCase dataset, consisting of 10,000 pairs of real-world, matched first-instance and second-instance documents across 91 categories of civil cases. The dataset also includes detailed annotations along five dimensions central to appellate review: judgment reversals, reversal reasons, cited legal provisions, claim-level decisions, and whether there is new information in the second instance. Based on these annotations, we propose five novel LegalAI tasks and conduct a comprehensive evaluation across 20 mainstream models. Experimental results reveal that all current models achieve less than 50% F1 scores on the judgment reversal prediction task, highlighting the complexity and challenge of the appeal scenario. We hope that the AppealCase dataset will spur further research in LegalAI for appellate case analysis and contribute to improving consistency in judicial decision-making.

ThinkRec: Thinking-based recommendation via LLM

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have enabled more semantic-aware recommendations through natural language generation. Existing LLM for recommendation (LLM4Rec) methods mostly operate in a System 1-like manner, relying on superficial features to match similar items based on click history, rather than reasoning through deeper behavioral logic. This often leads to superficial and erroneous recommendations. Motivated by this, we propose ThinkRec, a thinking-based framework that shifts LLM4Rec from System 1 to System 2 (rational system). Technically, ThinkRec introduces a thinking activation mechanism that augments item metadata with keyword summarization and injects synthetic reasoning traces, guiding the model to form interpretable reasoning chains that consist of analyzing interaction histories, identifying user preferences, and making decisions based on target items. On top of this, we propose an instance-wise expert fusion mechanism to reduce the reasoning difficulty. By dynamically assigning weights to expert models based on users' latent features, ThinkRec adapts its reasoning path to individual users, thereby enhancing precision and personalization. Extensive experiments on real-world datasets demonstrate that ThinkRec significantly improves the accuracy and interpretability of recommendations. Our implementations are available in anonymous Github: https://anonymous.4open.science/r/ThinkRec_LLM.