Reinforcement Learning with Videos: Combining Offline Observations with Interaction

Reinforcement learning is a powerful framework for robots to acquire skills from experience, but often requires a substantial amount of online data collection. As a result, it is difficult to collect sufficiently diverse experiences that are needed for robots to generalize broadly. Videos of humans, on the other hand, are a readily available source of broad and interesting experiences. In this paper, we consider the question: can we perform reinforcement learning directly on experience collected by humans? This problem is particularly difficult, as such videos are not annotated with actions and exhibit substantial visual domain shift relative to the robot's embodiment. To address these challenges, we propose a framework for reinforcement learning with videos (RLV). RLV learns a policy and value function using experience collected by humans in combination with data collected by robots. In our experiments, we find that RLV is able to leverage such videos to learn challenging vision-based skills with less than half as many samples as RL methods that learn from scratch.

Continual Learning of Control Primitives: Skill Discovery via Reset-Games

Reinforcement learning has the potential to automate the acquisition of behavior in complex settings, but in order for it to be successfully deployed, a number of practical challenges must be addressed. First, in real world settings, when an agent attempts a task and fails, the environment must somehow "reset" so that the agent can attempt the task again. While easy in simulation, this could require considerable human effort in the real world, especially if the number of trials is very large. Second, real world learning often involves complex, temporally extended behavior that is often difficult to acquire with random exploration. While these two problems may at first appear unrelated, in this work, we show how a single method can allow an agent to acquire skills with minimal supervision while removing the need for resets. We do this by exploiting the insight that the need to "reset" an agent to a broad set of initial states for a learning task provides a natural setting to learn a diverse set of "reset-skills". We propose a general-sum game formulation that balances the objectives of resetting and learning skills, and demonstrate that this approach improves performance on reset-free tasks, and additionally show that the skills we obtain can be used to significantly accelerate downstream learning.

Amortized Conditional Normalized Maximum Likelihood

While deep neural networks provide good performance for a range of challenging tasks, calibration and uncertainty estimation remain major challenges. In this paper, we propose the amortized conditional normalized maximum likelihood (ACNML) method as a scalable general-purpose approach for uncertainty estimation, calibration, and out-of-distribution robustness with deep networks. Our algorithm builds on the conditional normalized maximum likelihood (CNML) coding scheme, which has minimax optimal properties according to the minimum description length principle, but is computationally intractable to evaluate exactly for all but the simplest of model classes. We propose to use approximate Bayesian inference technqiues to produce a tractable approximation to the CNML distribution. Our approach can be combined with any approximate inference algorithm that provides tractable posterior densities over model parameters. We demonstrate that ACNML compares favorably to a number of prior techniques for uncertainty estimation in terms of calibration on out-of-distribution inputs.

Rearrangement: A Challenge for Embodied AI

We describe a framework for research and evaluation in Embodied AI. Our proposal is based on a canonical task: Rearrangement. A standard task can focus the development of new techniques and serve as a source of trained models that can be transferred to other settings. In the rearrangement task, the goal is to bring a given physical environment into a specified state. The goal state can be specified by object poses, by images, by a description in language, or by letting the agent experience the environment in the goal state. We characterize rearrangement scenarios along different axes and describe metrics for benchmarking rearrangement performance. To facilitate research and exploration, we present experimental testbeds of rearrangement scenarios in four different simulation environments. We anticipate that other datasets will be released and new simulation platforms will be built to support training of rearrangement agents and their deployment on physical systems.

COG: Connecting New Skills to Past Experience with Offline Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning has been applied to a wide variety of robotics problems, but most of such applications involve collecting data from scratch for each new task. Since the amount of robot data we can collect for any single task is limited by time and cost considerations, the learned behavior is typically narrow: the policy can only execute the task in a handful of scenarios that it was trained on. What if there was a way to incorporate a large amount of prior data, either from previously solved tasks or from unsupervised or undirected environment interaction, to extend and generalize learned behaviors? While most prior work on extending robotic skills using pre-collected data focuses on building explicit hierarchies or skill decompositions, we show in this paper that we can reuse prior data to extend new skills simply through dynamic programming. We show that even when the prior data does not actually succeed at solving the new task, it can still be utilized for learning a better policy, by providing the agent with a broader understanding of the mechanics of its environment. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach by chaining together several behaviors seen in prior datasets for solving a new task, with our hardest experimental setting involving composing four robotic skills in a row: picking, placing, drawer opening, and grasping, where a +1/0 sparse reward is provided only on task completion. We train our policies in an end-to-end fashion, mapping high-dimensional image observations to low-level robot control commands, and present results in both simulated and real world domains. Additional materials and source code can be found on our project website: https://sites.google.com/view/cog-rl

Implicit Under-Parameterization Inhibits Data-Efficient Deep Reinforcement Learning

We identify an implicit under-parameterization phenomenon in value-based deep RL methods that use bootstrapping: when value functions, approximated using deep neural networks, are trained with gradient descent using iterated regression onto target values generated by previous instances of the value network, more gradient updates decrease the expressivity of the current value network. We characterize this loss of expressivity in terms of a drop in the rank of the learned value network features, and show that this corresponds to a drop in performance. We demonstrate this phenomenon on widely studies domains, including Atari and Gym benchmarks, in both offline and online RL settings. We formally analyze this phenomenon and show that it results from a pathological interaction between bootstrapping and gradient-based optimization. We further show that mitigating implicit under-parameterization by controlling rank collapse improves performance.

Conservative Safety Critics for Exploration

Safe exploration presents a major challenge in reinforcement learning (RL): when active data collection requires deploying partially trained policies, we must ensure that these policies avoid catastrophically unsafe regions, while still enabling trial and error learning. In this paper, we target the problem of safe exploration in RL by learning a conservative safety estimate of environment states through a critic, and provably upper bound the likelihood of catastrophic failures at every training iteration. We theoretically characterize the tradeoff between safety and policy improvement, show that the safety constraints are likely to be satisfied with high probability during training, derive provable convergence guarantees for our approach, which is no worse asymptotically than standard RL, and demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed approach on a suite of challenging navigation, manipulation, and locomotion tasks. Empirically, we show that the proposed approach can achieve competitive task performance while incurring significantly lower catastrophic failure rates during training than prior methods. Videos are at this url https://sites.google.com/view/conservative-safety-critics/home

$γ$-Models: Generative Temporal Difference Learning for Infinite-Horizon Prediction

We introduce the $\gamma$-model, a predictive model of environment dynamics with an infinite probabilistic horizon. Replacing standard single-step models with $\gamma$-models leads to generalizations of the procedures that form the foundation of model-based control, including the model rollout and model-based value estimation. The $\gamma$-model, trained with a generative reinterpretation of temporal difference learning, is a natural continuous analogue of the successor representation and a hybrid between model-free and model-based mechanisms. Like a value function, it contains information about the long-term future; like a standard predictive model, it is independent of task reward. We instantiate the $\gamma$-model as both a generative adversarial network and normalizing flow, discuss how its training reflects an inescapable tradeoff between training-time and testing-time compounding errors, and empirically investigate its utility for prediction and control.

One Solution is Not All You Need: Few-Shot Extrapolation via Structured MaxEnt RL

While reinforcement learning algorithms can learn effective policies for complex tasks, these policies are often brittle to even minor task variations, especially when variations are not explicitly provided during training. One natural approach to this problem is to train agents with manually specified variation in the training task or environment. However, this may be infeasible in practical situations, either because making perturbations is not possible, or because it is unclear how to choose suitable perturbation strategies without sacrificing performance. The key insight of this work is that learning diverse behaviors for accomplishing a task can directly lead to behavior that generalizes to varying environments, without needing to perform explicit perturbations during training. By identifying multiple solutions for the task in a single environment during training, our approach can generalize to new situations by abandoning solutions that are no longer effective and adopting those that are. We theoretically characterize a robustness set of environments that arises from our algorithm and empirically find that our diversity-driven approach can extrapolate to various changes in the environment and task.

OPAL: Offline Primitive Discovery for Accelerating Offline Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved impressive performance in a variety of online settings in which an agent's ability to query the environment for transitions and rewards is effectively unlimited. However, in many practical applications, the situation is reversed: an agent may have access to large amounts of undirected offline experience data, while access to the online environment is severely limited. In this work, we focus on this offline setting. Our main insight is that, when presented with offline data composed of a variety of behaviors, an effective way to leverage this data is to extract a continuous space of recurring and temporally extended primitive behaviors before using these primitives for downstream task learning. Primitives extracted in this way serve two purposes: they delineate the behaviors that are supported by the data from those that are not, making them useful for avoiding distributional shift in offline RL; and they provide a degree of temporal abstraction, which reduces the effective horizon yielding better learning in theory, and improved offline RL in practice. In addition to benefiting offline policy optimization, we show that performing offline primitive learning in this way can also be leveraged for improving few-shot imitation learning as well as exploration and transfer in online RL on a variety of benchmark domains. Visualizations are available at https://sites.google.com/view/opal-iclr