In Search of Lost Online Test-time Adaptation: A Survey

In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey on online test-time adaptation (OTTA), a paradigm focused on adapting machine learning models to novel data distributions upon batch arrival. Despite the proliferation of OTTA methods recently, the field is mired in issues like ambiguous settings, antiquated backbones, and inconsistent hyperparameter tuning, obfuscating the real challenges and making reproducibility elusive. For clarity and a rigorous comparison, we classify OTTA techniques into three primary categories and subject them to benchmarks using the potent Vision Transformer (ViT) backbone to discover genuinely effective strategies. Our benchmarks span not only conventional corrupted datasets such as CIFAR-10/100-C and ImageNet-C but also real-world shifts embodied in CIFAR-10.1 and CIFAR-10-Warehouse, encapsulating variations across search engines and synthesized data by diffusion models. To gauge efficiency in online scenarios, we introduce novel evaluation metrics, inclusive of FLOPs, shedding light on the trade-offs between adaptation accuracy and computational overhead. Our findings diverge from existing literature, indicating: (1) transformers exhibit heightened resilience to diverse domain shifts, (2) the efficacy of many OTTA methods hinges on ample batch sizes, and (3) stability in optimization and resistance to perturbations are critical during adaptation, especially when the batch size is 1. Motivated by these insights, we pointed out promising directions for future research. The source code will be made available.

Understanding the Effects of Projectors in Knowledge Distillation

Conventionally, during the knowledge distillation process (e.g. feature distillation), an additional projector is often required to perform feature transformation due to the dimension mismatch between the teacher and the student networks. Interestingly, we discovered that even if the student and the teacher have the same feature dimensions, adding a projector still helps to improve the distillation performance. In addition, projectors even improve logit distillation if we add them to the architecture too. Inspired by these surprising findings and the general lack of understanding of the projectors in the knowledge distillation process from existing literature, this paper investigates the implicit role that projectors play but so far have been overlooked. Our empirical study shows that the student with a projector (1) obtains a better trade-off between the training accuracy and the testing accuracy compared to the student without a projector when it has the same feature dimensions as the teacher, (2) better preserves its similarity to the teacher beyond shallow and numeric resemblance, from the view of Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA), and (3) avoids being over-confident as the teacher does at the testing phase. Motivated by the positive effects of projectors, we propose a projector ensemble-based feature distillation method to further improve distillation performance. Despite the simplicity of the proposed strategy, empirical results from the evaluation of classification tasks on benchmark datasets demonstrate the superior classification performance of our method on a broad range of teacher-student pairs and verify from the aspects of CKA and model calibration that the student's features are of improved quality with the projector ensemble design.

Towards Open World Active Learning for 3D Object Detection

Significant strides have been made in closed world 3D object detection, testing systems in environments with known classes. However, the challenge arises in open world scenarios where new object classes appear. Existing efforts sequentially learn novel classes from streams of labeled data at a significant annotation cost, impeding efficient deployment to the wild. To seek effective solutions, we investigate a more practical yet challenging research task: Open World Active Learning for 3D Object Detection (OWAL-3D), aiming at selecting a small number of 3D boxes to annotate while maximizing detection performance on both known and unknown classes. The core difficulty centers on striking a balance between mining more unknown instances and minimizing the labeling expenses of point clouds. Empirically, our study finds the harmonious and inverse relationship between box quantities and their confidences can help alleviate the dilemma, avoiding the repeated selection of common known instances and focusing on uncertain objects that are potentially unknown. We unify both relational constraints into a simple and effective AL strategy namely OpenCRB, which guides to acquisition of informative point clouds with the least amount of boxes to label. Furthermore, we develop a comprehensive codebase for easy reproducing and future research, supporting 15 baseline methods (i.e., active learning, out-of-distribution detection and open world detection), 2 types of modern 3D detectors (i.e., one-stage SECOND and two-stage PV-RCNN) and 3 benchmark 3D datasets (i.e., KITTI, nuScenes and Waymo). Extensive experiments evidence that the proposed Open-CRB demonstrates superiority and flexibility in recognizing both novel and shared categories with very limited labeling costs, compared to state-of-the-art baselines.

CIFAR-10-Warehouse: Broad and More Realistic Testbeds in Model Generalization Analysis

Analyzing model performance in various unseen environments is a critical research problem in the machine learning community. To study this problem, it is important to construct a testbed with out-of-distribution test sets that have broad coverage of environmental discrepancies. However, existing testbeds typically either have a small number of domains or are synthesized by image corruptions, hindering algorithm design that demonstrates real-world effectiveness. In this paper, we introduce CIFAR-10-Warehouse, consisting of 180 datasets collected by prompting image search engines and diffusion models in various ways. Generally sized between 300 and 8,000 images, the datasets contain natural images, cartoons, certain colors, or objects that do not naturally appear. With CIFAR-10-W, we aim to enhance the evaluation and deepen the understanding of two generalization tasks: domain generalization and model accuracy prediction in various out-of-distribution environments. We conduct extensive benchmarking and comparison experiments and show that CIFAR-10-W offers new and interesting insights inherent to these tasks. We also discuss other fields that would benefit from CIFAR-10-W.

Divide and Ensemble: Progressively Learning for the Unknown

In the wheat nutrient deficiencies classification challenge, we present the DividE and EnseMble (DEEM) method for progressive test data predictions. We find that (1) test images are provided in the challenge; (2) samples are equipped with their collection dates; (3) the samples of different dates show notable discrepancies. Based on the findings, we partition the dataset into discrete groups by the dates and train models on each divided group. We then adopt the pseudo-labeling approach to label the test data and incorporate those with high confidence into the training set. In pseudo-labeling, we leverage models ensemble with different architectures to enhance the reliability of predictions. The pseudo-labeling and ensembled model training are iteratively conducted until all test samples are labeled. Finally, the separated models for each group are unified to obtain the model for the whole dataset. Our method achieves an average of 93.6\% Top-1 test accuracy~(94.0\% on WW2020 and 93.2\% on WR2021) and wins the 1$st$ place in the Deep Nutrient Deficiency Challenge~\footnote{https://cvppa2023.github.io/challenges/}.

CaT: Balanced Continual Graph Learning with Graph Condensation

Continual graph learning (CGL) is purposed to continuously update a graph model with graph data being fed in a streaming manner. Since the model easily forgets previously learned knowledge when training with new-coming data, the catastrophic forgetting problem has been the major focus in CGL. Recent replay-based methods intend to solve this problem by updating the model using both (1) the entire new-coming data and (2) a sampling-based memory bank that stores replayed graphs to approximate the distribution of historical data. After updating the model, a new replayed graph sampled from the incoming graph will be added to the existing memory bank. Despite these methods are intuitive and effective for the CGL, two issues are identified in this paper. Firstly, most sampling-based methods struggle to fully capture the historical distribution when the storage budget is tight. Secondly, a significant data imbalance exists in terms of the scales of the complex new-coming graph data and the lightweight memory bank, resulting in unbalanced training. To solve these issues, a Condense and Train (CaT) framework is proposed in this paper. Prior to each model update, the new-coming graph is condensed to a small yet informative synthesised replayed graph, which is then stored in a Condensed Graph Memory with historical replay graphs. In the continual learning phase, a Training in Memory scheme is used to update the model directly with the Condensed Graph Memory rather than the whole new-coming graph, which alleviates the data imbalance problem. Extensive experiments conducted on four benchmark datasets successfully demonstrate superior performances of the proposed CaT framework in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. The code has been released on https://github.com/superallen13/CaT-CGL.

UQ at #SMM4H 2023: ALEX for Public Health Analysis with Social Media

As social media becomes increasingly popular, more and more activities related to public health emerge. Current techniques for public health analysis involve popular models such as BERT and large language models (LLMs). However, the costs of training in-domain LLMs for public health are especially expensive. Furthermore, such kinds of in-domain datasets from social media are generally imbalanced. To tackle these challenges, the data imbalance issue can be overcome by data augmentation and balanced training. Moreover, the ability of the LLMs can be effectively utilized by prompting the model properly. In this paper, a novel ALEX framework is proposed to improve the performance of public health analysis on social media by adopting an LLMs explanation mechanism. Results show that our ALEX model got the best performance among all submissions in both Task 2 and Task 4 with a high score in Task 1 in Social Media Mining for Health 2023 (SMM4H)[1]. Our code has been released at https:// github.com/YanJiangJerry/ALEX.

BAVS: Bootstrapping Audio-Visual Segmentation by Integrating Foundation Knowledge

Given an audio-visual pair, audio-visual segmentation (AVS) aims to locate sounding sources by predicting pixel-wise maps. Previous methods assume that each sound component in an audio signal always has a visual counterpart in the image. However, this assumption overlooks that off-screen sounds and background noise often contaminate the audio recordings in real-world scenarios. They impose significant challenges on building a consistent semantic mapping between audio and visual signals for AVS models and thus impede precise sound localization. In this work, we propose a two-stage bootstrapping audio-visual segmentation framework by incorporating multi-modal foundation knowledge. In a nutshell, our BAVS is designed to eliminate the interference of background noise or off-screen sounds in segmentation by establishing the audio-visual correspondences in an explicit manner. In the first stage, we employ a segmentation model to localize potential sounding objects from visual data without being affected by contaminated audio signals. Meanwhile, we also utilize a foundation audio classification model to discern audio semantics. Considering the audio tags provided by the audio foundation model are noisy, associating object masks with audio tags is not trivial. Thus, in the second stage, we develop an audio-visual semantic integration strategy (AVIS) to localize the authentic-sounding objects. Here, we construct an audio-visual tree based on the hierarchical correspondence between sounds and object categories. We then examine the label concurrency between the localized objects and classified audio tags by tracing the audio-visual tree. With AVIS, we can effectively segment real-sounding objects. Extensive experiments demonstrate the superiority of our method on AVS datasets, particularly in scenarios involving background noise. Our project website is https://yenanliu.github.io/AVSS.github.io/.

Cal-SFDA: Source-Free Domain-adaptive Semantic Segmentation with Differentiable Expected Calibration Error

The prevalence of domain adaptive semantic segmentation has prompted concerns regarding source domain data leakage, where private information from the source domain could inadvertently be exposed in the target domain. To circumvent the requirement for source data, source-free domain adaptation has emerged as a viable solution that leverages self-training methods to pseudo-label high-confidence regions and adapt the model to the target data. However, the confidence scores obtained are often highly biased due to over-confidence and class-imbalance issues, which render both model selection and optimization problematic. In this paper, we propose a novel calibration-guided source-free domain adaptive semantic segmentation (Cal-SFDA) framework. The core idea is to estimate the expected calibration error (ECE) from the segmentation predictions, serving as a strong indicator of the model's generalization capability to the unlabeled target domain. The estimated ECE scores, in turn, assist the model training and fair selection in both source training and target adaptation stages. During model pre-training on the source domain, we ensure the differentiability of the ECE objective by leveraging the LogSumExp trick and using ECE scores to select the best source checkpoints for adaptation. To enable ECE estimation on the target domain without requiring labels, we train a value net for ECE estimation and apply statistic warm-up on its BatchNorm layers for stability. The estimated ECE scores assist in determining the reliability of prediction and enable class-balanced pseudo-labeling by positively guiding the adaptation progress and inhibiting potential error accumulation. Extensive experiments on two widely-used synthetic-to-real transfer tasks show that the proposed approach surpasses previous state-of-the-art by up to 5.25% of mIoU with fair model selection criteria.

OrcoDCS: An IoT-Edge Orchestrated Online Deep Compressed Sensing Framework

Compressed data aggregation (CDA) over wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is task-specific and subject to environmental changes. However, the existing compressed data aggregation (CDA) frameworks (e.g., compressed sensing-based data aggregation, deep learning(DL)-based data aggregation) do not possess the flexibility and adaptivity required to handle distinct sensing tasks and environmental changes. Additionally, they do not consider the performance of follow-up IoT data-driven deep learning (DL)-based applications. To address these shortcomings, we propose OrcoDCS, an IoT-Edge orchestrated online deep compressed sensing framework that offers high flexibility and adaptability to distinct IoT device groups and their sensing tasks, as well as high performance for follow-up applications. The novelty of our work is the design and deployment of IoT-Edge orchestrated online training framework over WSNs by leveraging an specially-designed asymmetric autoencoder, which can largely reduce the encoding overhead and improve the reconstruction performance and robustness. We show analytically and empirically that OrcoDCS outperforms the state-of-the-art DCDA on training time, significantly improves flexibility and adaptability when distinct reconstruction tasks are given, and achieves higher performance for follow-up applications.