Information Asymmetry across Language Varieties: A Case Study on Cantonese-Mandarin and Bavarian-German QA

Large Language Models (LLMs) are becoming a common way for humans to seek knowledge, yet their coverage and reliability vary widely. Especially for local language varieties, there are large asymmetries, e.g., information in local Wikipedia that is absent from the standard variant. However, little is known about how well LLMs perform under such information asymmetry, especially on closely related languages. We manually construct a novel challenge question-answering (QA) dataset that captures knowledge conveyed on a local Wikipedia page, which is absent from their higher-resource counterparts-covering Mandarin Chinese vs. Cantonese and German vs. Bavarian. Our experiments show that LLMs fail to answer questions about information only in local editions of Wikipedia. Providing context from lead sections substantially improves performance, with further gains possible via translation. Our topical, geographic annotations, and stratified evaluations reveal the usefulness of local Wikipedia editions as sources of both regional and global information. These findings raise critical questions about inclusivity and cultural coverage of LLMs.

Indirect Question Answering in English, German and Bavarian: A Challenging Task for High- and Low-Resource Languages Alike

Indirectness is a common feature of daily communication, yet is underexplored in NLP research for both low-resource as well as high-resource languages. Indirect Question Answering (IQA) aims at classifying the polarity of indirect answers. In this paper, we present two multilingual corpora for IQA of varying quality that both cover English, Standard German and Bavarian, a German dialect without standard orthography: InQA+, a small high-quality evaluation dataset with hand-annotated labels, and GenIQA, a larger training dataset, that contains artificial data generated by GPT-4o-mini. We find that IQA is a pragmatically hard task that comes with various challenges, based on several experiment variations with multilingual transformer models (mBERT, XLM-R and mDeBERTa). We suggest and employ recommendations to tackle these challenges. Our results reveal low performance, even for English, and severe overfitting. We analyse various factors that influence these results, including label ambiguity, label set and dataset size. We find that the IQA performance is poor in high- (English, German) and low-resource languages (Bavarian) and that it is beneficial to have a large amount of training data. Further, GPT-4o-mini does not possess enough pragmatic understanding to generate high-quality IQA data in any of our tested languages.

LogicSkills: A Structured Benchmark for Formal Reasoning in Large Language Models

Large language models have demonstrated notable performance across various logical reasoning benchmarks. However, it remains unclear which core logical skills they truly master. To address this, we introduce LogicSkills, a unified benchmark designed to isolate three fundamental skills in formal reasoning: (i) $\textit{formal symbolization}\unicode{x2014}$translating premises into first-order logic; (ii) $\textit{countermodel construction}\unicode{x2014}$formulating a finite structure in which all premises are true while the conclusion is false; and (iii) $\textit{validity assessment}\unicode{x2014}$deciding whether a conclusion follows from a given set of premises. Items are drawn from the two-variable fragment of first-order logic (without identity) and are presented in both natural English and a Carroll-style language with nonce words. All examples are verified for correctness and non-triviality using the SMT solver Z3. Across leading models, performance is high on validity but substantially lower on symbolization and countermodel construction, suggesting reliance on surface-level patterns rather than genuine symbolic or rule-based reasoning.

When Meanings Meet: Investigating the Emergence and Quality of Shared Concept Spaces during Multilingual Language Model Training

Training Large Language Models (LLMs) with high multilingual coverage is becoming increasingly important -- especially when monolingual resources are scarce. Recent studies have found that LLMs process multilingual inputs in shared concept spaces, thought to support generalization and cross-lingual transfer. However, these prior studies often do not use causal methods, lack deeper error analysis or focus on the final model only, leaving open how these spaces emerge during training. We investigate the development of language-agnostic concept spaces during pretraining of EuroLLM through the causal interpretability method of activation patching. We isolate cross-lingual concept representations, then inject them into a translation prompt to investigate how consistently translations can be altered, independently of the language. We find that shared concept spaces emerge early} and continue to refine, but that alignment with them is language-dependent}. Furthermore, in contrast to prior work, our fine-grained manual analysis reveals that some apparent gains in translation quality reflect shifts in behavior -- like selecting senses for polysemous words or translating instead of copying cross-lingual homographs -- rather than improved translation ability. Our findings offer new insight into the training dynamics of cross-lingual alignment and the conditions under which causal interpretability methods offer meaningful insights in multilingual contexts.

Controlling Reading Ease with Gaze-Guided Text Generation

The way our eyes move while reading can tell us about the cognitive effort required to process the text. In the present study, we use this fact to generate texts with controllable reading ease. Our method employs a model that predicts human gaze patterns to steer language model outputs towards eliciting certain reading behaviors. We evaluate the approach in an eye-tracking experiment with native and non-native speakers of English. The results demonstrate that the method is effective at making the generated texts easier or harder to read, measured both in terms of reading times and perceived difficulty of the texts. A statistical analysis reveals that the changes in reading behavior are mostly due to features that affect lexical processing. Possible applications of our approach include text simplification for information accessibility and generation of personalized educational material for language learning.

SteerEval: Inference-time Interventions Strengthen Multilingual Generalization in Neural Summarization Metrics

An increasing body of work has leveraged multilingual language models for Natural Language Generation tasks such as summarization. A major empirical bottleneck in this area is the shortage of accurate and robust evaluation metrics for many languages, which hinders progress. Recent studies suggest that multilingual language models often use English as an internal pivot language, and that misalignment with this pivot can lead to degraded downstream performance. Motivated by the hypothesis that this mismatch could also apply to multilingual neural metrics, we ask whether steering their activations toward an English pivot can improve correlation with human judgments. We experiment with encoder- and decoder-based metrics and find that test-time intervention methods are effective across the board, increasing metric effectiveness for diverse languages.

Decoupling the Effect of Chain-of-Thought Reasoning: A Human Label Variation Perspective

Reasoning-tuned LLMs utilizing long Chain-of-Thought (CoT) excel at single-answer tasks, yet their ability to model Human Label Variation--which requires capturing probabilistic ambiguity rather than resolving it--remains underexplored. We investigate this through systematic disentanglement experiments on distribution-based tasks, employing Cross-CoT experiments to isolate the effect of reasoning text from intrinsic model priors. We observe a distinct "decoupled mechanism": while CoT improves distributional alignment, final accuracy is dictated by CoT content (99% variance contribution), whereas distributional ranking is governed by model priors (over 80%). Step-wise analysis further shows that while CoT's influence on accuracy grows monotonically during the reasoning process, distributional structure is largely determined by LLM's intrinsic priors. These findings suggest that long CoT serves as a decisive LLM decision-maker for the top option but fails to function as a granular distribution calibrator for ambiguous tasks.

Linear Script Representations in Speech Foundation Models Enable Zero-Shot Transliteration

Multilingual speech foundation models such as Whisper are trained on web-scale data, where data for each language consists of a myriad of regional varieties. However, different regional varieties often employ different scripts to write the same language, rendering speech recognition output also subject to non-determinism in the output script. To mitigate this problem, we show that script is linearly encoded in the activation space of multilingual speech models, and that modifying activations at inference time enables direct control over output script. We find the addition of such script vectors to activations at test time can induce script change even in unconventional language-script pairings (e.g. Italian in Cyrillic and Japanese in Latin script). We apply this approach to inducing post-hoc control over the script of speech recognition output, where we observe competitive performance across all model sizes of Whisper.

EVADE: LLM-Based Explanation Generation and Validation for Error Detection in NLI

High-quality datasets are critical for training and evaluating reliable NLP models. In tasks like natural language inference (NLI), human label variation (HLV) arises when multiple labels are valid for the same instance, making it difficult to separate annotation errors from plausible variation. An earlier framework VARIERR (Weber-Genzel et al., 2024) asks multiple annotators to explain their label decisions in the first round and flag errors via validity judgments in the second round. However, conducting two rounds of manual annotation is costly and may limit the coverage of plausible labels or explanations. Our study proposes a new framework, EVADE, for generating and validating explanations to detect errors using large language models (LLMs). We perform a comprehensive analysis comparing human- and LLM-detected errors for NLI across distribution comparison, validation overlap, and impact on model fine-tuning. Our experiments demonstrate that LLM validation refines generated explanation distributions to more closely align with human annotations, and that removing LLM-detected errors from training data yields improvements in fine-tuning performance than removing errors identified by human annotators. This highlights the potential to scale error detection, reducing human effort while improving dataset quality under label variation.

BoN Appetit Team at LeWiDi-2025: Best-of-N Test-time Scaling Can Not Stomach Annotation Disagreements (Yet)

Test-time scaling is a family of techniques to improve LLM outputs at inference time by performing extra computation. To the best of our knowledge, test-time scaling has been limited to domains with verifiably correct answers, like mathematics and coding. We transfer test-time scaling to the LeWiDi-2025 tasks to evaluate annotation disagreements. We experiment with three test-time scaling methods: two benchmark algorithms (Model Averaging and Majority Voting), and a Best-of-N sampling method. The two benchmark methods improve LLM performance consistently on the LeWiDi tasks, but the Best-of-N method does not. Our experiments suggest that the Best-of-N method does not currently transfer from mathematics to LeWiDi tasks, and we analyze potential reasons for this gap.