Do Llamas Work in English? On the Latent Language of Multilingual Transformers

We ask whether multilingual language models trained on unbalanced, English-dominated corpora use English as an internal pivot language -- a question of key importance for understanding how language models function and the origins of linguistic bias. Focusing on the Llama-2 family of transformer models, our study uses carefully constructed non-English prompts with a unique correct single-token continuation. From layer to layer, transformers gradually map an input embedding of the final prompt token to an output embedding from which next-token probabilities are computed. Tracking intermediate embeddings through their high-dimensional space reveals three distinct phases, whereby intermediate embeddings (1) start far away from output token embeddings; (2) already allow for decoding a semantically correct next token in the middle layers, but give higher probability to its version in English than in the input language; (3) finally move into an input-language-specific region of the embedding space. We cast these results into a conceptual model where the three phases operate in "input space", "concept space", and "output space", respectively. Crucially, our evidence suggests that the abstract "concept space" lies closer to English than to other languages, which may have important consequences regarding the biases held by multilingual language models.

Evaluating Language Model Agency through Negotiations

Companies, organizations, and governments increasingly exploit Language Models' (LM) remarkable capability to display agent-like behavior. As LMs are adopted to perform tasks with growing autonomy, there exists an urgent need for reliable and scalable evaluation benchmarks. Current, predominantly static LM benchmarks are ill-suited to evaluate such dynamic applications. Thus, we propose jointly evaluating LM performance and alignment through the lenses of negotiation games. We argue that this common task better reflects real-world deployment conditions while offering insights into LMs' decision-making processes. Crucially, negotiation games allow us to study multi-turn, and cross-model interactions, modulate complexity, and side-step accidental data leakage in evaluation. We report results for six publicly accessible LMs from several major providers on a variety of negotiation games, evaluating both self-play and cross-play performance. Noteworthy findings include: (i) open-source models are currently unable to complete these tasks; (ii) cooperative bargaining games prove challenging; and (iii) the most powerful models do not always "win".

Prevalence and prevention of large language model use in crowd work

We show that the use of large language models (LLMs) is prevalent among crowd workers, and that targeted mitigation strategies can significantly reduce, but not eliminate, LLM use. On a text summarization task where workers were not directed in any way regarding their LLM use, the estimated prevalence of LLM use was around 30%, but was reduced by about half by asking workers to not use LLMs and by raising the cost of using them, e.g., by disabling copy-pasting. Secondary analyses give further insight into LLM use and its prevention: LLM use yields high-quality but homogeneous responses, which may harm research concerned with human (rather than model) behavior and degrade future models trained with crowdsourced data. At the same time, preventing LLM use may be at odds with obtaining high-quality responses; e.g., when requesting workers not to use LLMs, summaries contained fewer keywords carrying essential information. Our estimates will likely change as LLMs increase in popularity or capabilities, and as norms around their usage change. Yet, understanding the co-evolution of LLM-based tools and users is key to maintaining the validity of research done using crowdsourcing, and we provide a critical baseline before widespread adoption ensues.

Artificial Artificial Artificial Intelligence: Crowd Workers Widely Use Large Language Models for Text Production Tasks

Large language models (LLMs) are remarkable data annotators. They can be used to generate high-fidelity supervised training data, as well as survey and experimental data. With the widespread adoption of LLMs, human gold--standard annotations are key to understanding the capabilities of LLMs and the validity of their results. However, crowdsourcing, an important, inexpensive way to obtain human annotations, may itself be impacted by LLMs, as crowd workers have financial incentives to use LLMs to increase their productivity and income. To investigate this concern, we conducted a case study on the prevalence of LLM usage by crowd workers. We reran an abstract summarization task from the literature on Amazon Mechanical Turk and, through a combination of keystroke detection and synthetic text classification, estimate that 33-46% of crowd workers used LLMs when completing the task. Although generalization to other, less LLM-friendly tasks is unclear, our results call for platforms, researchers, and crowd workers to find new ways to ensure that human data remain human, perhaps using the methodology proposed here as a stepping stone. Code/data: https://github.com/epfl-dlab/GPTurk

Generating Faithful Synthetic Data with Large Language Models: A Case Study in Computational Social Science

Large Language Models (LLMs) have democratized synthetic data generation, which in turn has the potential to simplify and broaden a wide gamut of NLP tasks. Here, we tackle a pervasive problem in synthetic data generation: its generative distribution often differs from the distribution of real-world data researchers care about (in other words, it is unfaithful). In a case study on sarcasm detection, we study three strategies to increase the faithfulness of synthetic data: grounding, filtering, and taxonomy-based generation. We evaluate these strategies using the performance of classifiers trained with generated synthetic data on real-world data. While all three strategies improve the performance of classifiers, we find that grounding works best for the task at hand. As synthetic data generation plays an ever-increasing role in NLP research, we expect this work to be a stepping stone in improving its utility. We conclude this paper with some recommendations on how to generate high(er)-fidelity synthetic data for specific tasks.