MultiSTOP: Solving Functional Equations with Reinforcement Learning

We develop MultiSTOP, a Reinforcement Learning framework for solving functional equations in physics. This new methodology produces actual numerical solutions instead of bounds on them. We extend the original BootSTOP algorithm by adding multiple constraints derived from domain-specific knowledge, even in integral form, to improve the accuracy of the solution. We investigate a particular equation in a one-dimensional Conformal Field Theory.

Calibration of Continual Learning Models

Continual Learning (CL) focuses on maximizing the predictive performance of a model across a non-stationary stream of data. Unfortunately, CL models tend to forget previous knowledge, thus often underperforming when compared with an offline model trained jointly on the entire data stream. Given that any CL model will eventually make mistakes, it is of crucial importance to build calibrated CL models: models that can reliably tell their confidence when making a prediction. Model calibration is an active research topic in machine learning, yet to be properly investigated in CL. We provide the first empirical study of the behavior of calibration approaches in CL, showing that CL strategies do not inherently learn calibrated models. To mitigate this issue, we design a continual calibration approach that improves the performance of post-processing calibration methods over a wide range of different benchmarks and CL strategies. CL does not necessarily need perfect predictive models, but rather it can benefit from reliable predictive models. We believe our study on continual calibration represents a first step towards this direction.

Continual Learning: Applications and the Road Forward

Continual learning is a sub-field of machine learning, which aims to allow machine learning models to continuously learn on new data, by accumulating knowledge without forgetting what was learned in the past. In this work, we take a step back, and ask: "Why should one care about continual learning in the first place?". We set the stage by surveying recent continual learning papers published at three major machine learning conferences, and show that memory-constrained settings dominate the field. Then, we discuss five open problems in machine learning, and even though they seem unrelated to continual learning at first sight, we show that continual learning will inevitably be part of their solution. These problems are model-editing, personalization, on-device learning, faster (re-)training and reinforcement learning. Finally, by comparing the desiderata from these unsolved problems and the current assumptions in continual learning, we highlight and discuss four future directions for continual learning research. We hope that this work offers an interesting perspective on the future of continual learning, while displaying its potential value and the paths we have to pursue in order to make it successful. This work is the result of the many discussions the authors had at the Dagstuhl seminar on Deep Continual Learning, in March 2023.

A Comprehensive Empirical Evaluation on Online Continual Learning

Online continual learning aims to get closer to a live learning experience by learning directly on a stream of data with temporally shifting distribution and by storing a minimum amount of data from that stream. In this empirical evaluation, we evaluate various methods from the literature that tackle online continual learning. More specifically, we focus on the class-incremental setting in the context of image classification, where the learner must learn new classes incrementally from a stream of data. We compare these methods on the Split-CIFAR100 and Split-TinyImagenet benchmarks, and measure their average accuracy, forgetting, stability, and quality of the representations, to evaluate various aspects of the algorithm at the end but also during the whole training period. We find that most methods suffer from stability and underfitting issues. However, the learned representations are comparable to i.i.d. training under the same computational budget. No clear winner emerges from the results and basic experience replay, when properly tuned and implemented, is a very strong baseline. We release our modular and extensible codebase at https://github.com/AlbinSou/ocl_survey based on the avalanche framework to reproduce our results and encourage future research.

A Protocol for Continual Explanation of SHAP

Continual Learning trains models on a stream of data, with the aim of learning new information without forgetting previous knowledge. Given the dynamic nature of such environments, explaining the predictions of these models can be challenging. We study the behavior of SHAP values explanations in Continual Learning and propose an evaluation protocol to robustly assess the change of explanations in Class-Incremental scenarios. We observed that, while Replay strategies enforce the stability of SHAP values in feedforward/convolutional models, they are not able to do the same with fully-trained recurrent models. We show that alternative recurrent approaches, like randomized recurrent models, are more effective in keeping the explanations stable over time.

Projected Latent Distillation for Data-Agnostic Consolidation in Distributed Continual Learning

Distributed learning on the edge often comprises self-centered devices (SCD) which learn local tasks independently and are unwilling to contribute to the performance of other SDCs. How do we achieve forward transfer at zero cost for the single SCDs? We formalize this problem as a Distributed Continual Learning scenario, where SCD adapt to local tasks and a CL model consolidates the knowledge from the resulting stream of models without looking at the SCD's private data. Unfortunately, current CL methods are not directly applicable to this scenario. We propose Data-Agnostic Consolidation (DAC), a novel double knowledge distillation method that consolidates the stream of SC models without using the original data. DAC performs distillation in the latent space via a novel Projected Latent Distillation loss. Experimental results show that DAC enables forward transfer between SCDs and reaches state-of-the-art accuracy on Split CIFAR100, CORe50 and Split TinyImageNet, both in reharsal-free and distributed CL scenarios. Somewhat surprisingly, even a single out-of-distribution image is sufficient as the only source of data during consolidation.

Avalanche: A PyTorch Library for Deep Continual Learning

Continual learning is the problem of learning from a nonstationary stream of data, a fundamental issue for sustainable and efficient training of deep neural networks over time. Unfortunately, deep learning libraries only provide primitives for offline training, assuming that model's architecture and data are fixed. Avalanche is an open source library maintained by the ContinualAI non-profit organization that extends PyTorch by providing first-class support for dynamic architectures, streams of datasets, and incremental training and evaluation methods. Avalanche provides a large set of predefined benchmarks and training algorithms and it is easy to extend and modular while supporting a wide range of continual learning scenarios. Documentation is available at \url{https://avalanche.continualai.org}.

Class-Incremental Learning with Repetition

Real-world data streams naturally include the repetition of previous concepts. From a Continual Learning (CL) perspective, repetition is a property of the environment and, unlike replay, cannot be controlled by the user. Nowadays, Class-Incremental scenarios represent the leading test-bed for assessing and comparing CL strategies. This family of scenarios is very easy to use, but it never allows revisiting previously seen classes, thus completely disregarding the role of repetition. We focus on the family of Class-Incremental with Repetition (CIR) scenarios, where repetition is embedded in the definition of the stream. We propose two stochastic scenario generators that produce a wide range of CIR scenarios starting from a single dataset and a few control parameters. We conduct the first comprehensive evaluation of repetition in CL by studying the behavior of existing CL strategies under different CIR scenarios. We then present a novel replay strategy that exploits repetition and counteracts the natural imbalance present in the stream. On both CIFAR100 and TinyImageNet, our strategy outperforms other replay approaches, which are not designed for environments with repetition.

Continual Learning for Human State Monitoring

Continual Learning (CL) on time series data represents a promising but under-studied avenue for real-world applications. We propose two new CL benchmarks for Human State Monitoring. We carefully designed the benchmarks to mirror real-world environments in which new subjects are continuously added. We conducted an empirical evaluation to assess the ability of popular CL strategies to mitigate forgetting in our benchmarks. Our results show that, possibly due to the domain-incremental properties of our benchmarks, forgetting can be easily tackled even with a simple finetuning and that existing strategies struggle in accumulating knowledge over a fixed, held-out, test subject.

Sample Condensation in Online Continual Learning

Online Continual learning is a challenging learning scenario where the model must learn from a non-stationary stream of data where each sample is seen only once. The main challenge is to incrementally learn while avoiding catastrophic forgetting, namely the problem of forgetting previously acquired knowledge while learning from new data. A popular solution in these scenario is to use a small memory to retain old data and rehearse them over time. Unfortunately, due to the limited memory size, the quality of the memory will deteriorate over time. In this paper we propose OLCGM, a novel replay-based continual learning strategy that uses knowledge condensation techniques to continuously compress the memory and achieve a better use of its limited size. The sample condensation step compresses old samples, instead of removing them like other replay strategies. As a result, the experiments show that, whenever the memory budget is limited compared to the complexity of the data, OLCGM improves the final accuracy compared to state-of-the-art replay strategies.