AudioPaLM: A Large Language Model That Can Speak and Listen

We introduce AudioPaLM, a large language model for speech understanding and generation. AudioPaLM fuses text-based and speech-based language models, PaLM-2 [Anil et al., 2023] and AudioLM [Borsos et al., 2022], into a unified multimodal architecture that can process and generate text and speech with applications including speech recognition and speech-to-speech translation. AudioPaLM inherits the capability to preserve paralinguistic information such as speaker identity and intonation from AudioLM and the linguistic knowledge present only in text large language models such as PaLM-2. We demonstrate that initializing AudioPaLM with the weights of a text-only large language model improves speech processing, successfully leveraging the larger quantity of text training data used in pretraining to assist with the speech tasks. The resulting model significantly outperforms existing systems for speech translation tasks and has the ability to perform zero-shot speech-to-text translation for many languages for which input/target language combinations were not seen in training. AudioPaLM also demonstrates features of audio language models, such as transferring a voice across languages based on a short spoken prompt. We release examples of our method at https://google-research.github.io/seanet/audiopalm/examples

MultiTurnCleanup: A Benchmark for Multi-Turn Spoken Conversational Transcript Cleanup

Current disfluency detection models focus on individual utterances each from a single speaker. However, numerous discontinuity phenomena in spoken conversational transcripts occur across multiple turns, hampering human readability and the performance of downstream NLP tasks. This study addresses these phenomena by proposing an innovative Multi-Turn Cleanup task for spoken conversational transcripts and collecting a new dataset, MultiTurnCleanup1. We design a data labeling schema to collect the high-quality dataset and provide extensive data analysis. Furthermore, we leverage two modeling approaches for experimental evaluation as benchmarks for future research.

Teaching BERT to Wait: Balancing Accuracy and Latency for Streaming Disfluency Detection

In modern interactive speech-based systems, speech is consumed and transcribed incrementally prior to having disfluencies removed. This post-processing step is crucial for producing clean transcripts and high performance on downstream tasks (e.g. machine translation). However, most current state-of-the-art NLP models such as the Transformer operate non-incrementally, potentially causing unacceptable delays. We propose a streaming BERT-based sequence tagging model that, combined with a novel training objective, is capable of detecting disfluencies in real-time while balancing accuracy and latency. This is accomplished by training the model to decide whether to immediately output a prediction for the current input or to wait for further context. Essentially, the model learns to dynamically size its lookahead window. Our results demonstrate that our model produces comparably accurate predictions and does so sooner than our baselines, with lower flicker. Furthermore, the model attains state-of-the-art latency and stability scores when compared with recent work on incremental disfluency detection.

Residual Adapters for Parameter-Efficient ASR Adaptation to Atypical and Accented Speech

Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) systems are often optimized to work best for speakers with canonical speech patterns. Unfortunately, these systems perform poorly when tested on atypical speech and heavily accented speech. It has previously been shown that personalization through model fine-tuning substantially improves performance. However, maintaining such large models per speaker is costly and difficult to scale. We show that by adding a relatively small number of extra parameters to the encoder layers via so-called residual adapter, we can achieve similar adaptation gains compared to model fine-tuning, while only updating a tiny fraction (less than 0.5%) of the model parameters. We demonstrate this on two speech adaptation tasks (atypical and accented speech) and for two state-of-the-art ASR architectures.

Disfluency Detection with Unlabeled Data and Small BERT Models

Disfluency detection models now approach high accuracy on English text. However, little exploration has been done in improving the size and inference time of the model. At the same time, automatic speech recognition (ASR) models are moving from server-side inference to local, on-device inference. Supporting models in the transcription pipeline (like disfluency detection) must follow suit. In this work we concentrate on the disfluency detection task, focusing on small, fast, on-device models based on the BERT architecture. We demonstrate it is possible to train disfluency detection models as small as 1.3 MiB, while retaining high performance. We build on previous work that showed the benefit of data augmentation approaches such as self-training. Then, we evaluate the effect of domain mismatch between conversational and written text on model performance. We find that domain adaptation and data augmentation strategies have a more pronounced effect on these smaller models, as compared to conventional BERT models.

Representations for Question Answering from Documents with Tables and Text

Tables in Web documents are pervasive and can be directly used to answer many of the queries searched on the Web, motivating their integration in question answering. Very often information presented in tables is succinct and hard to interpret with standard language representations. On the other hand, tables often appear within textual context, such as an article describing the table. Using the information from an article as additional context can potentially enrich table representations. In this work we aim to improve question answering from tables by refining table representations based on information from surrounding text. We also present an effective method to combine text and table-based predictions for question answering from full documents, obtaining significant improvements on the Natural Questions dataset.

Disfluencies and Human Speech Transcription Errors

This paper explores contexts associated with errors in transcrip-tion of spontaneous speech, shedding light on human perceptionof disfluencies and other conversational speech phenomena. Anew version of the Switchboard corpus is provided with disfluency annotations for careful speech transcripts, together with results showing the impact of transcription errors on evaluation of automatic disfluency detection.

Giving Attention to the Unexpected: Using Prosody Innovations in Disfluency Detection

Disfluencies in spontaneous speech are known to be associated with prosodic disruptions. However, most algorithms for disfluency detection use only word transcripts. Integrating prosodic cues has proved difficult because of the many sources of variability affecting the acoustic correlates. This paper introduces a new approach to extracting acoustic-prosodic cues using text-based distributional prediction of acoustic cues to derive vector z-score features (innovations). We explore both early and late fusion techniques for integrating text and prosody, showing gains over a high-accuracy text-only model.

Robust cross-domain disfluency detection with pattern match networks

In this paper we introduce a novel pattern match neural network architecture that uses neighbor similarity scores as features, eliminating the need for feature engineering in a disfluency detection task. We evaluate the approach in disfluency detection for four different speech genres, showing that the approach is as effective as hand-engineered pattern match features when used on in-domain data and achieves superior performance in cross-domain scenarios.

Conversation Modeling on Reddit using a Graph-Structured LSTM

This paper presents a novel approach for modeling threaded discussions on social media using a graph-structured bidirectional LSTM which represents both hierarchical and temporal conversation structure. In experiments with a task of predicting popularity of comments in Reddit discussions, the proposed model outperforms a node-independent architecture for different sets of input features. Analyses show a benefit to the model over the full course of the discussion, improving detection in both early and late stages. Further, the use of language cues with the bidirectional tree state updates helps with identifying controversial comments.