Properly Learning Decision Trees with Queries Is NP-Hard

We prove that it is NP-hard to properly PAC learn decision trees with queries, resolving a longstanding open problem in learning theory (Bshouty 1993; Guijarro-Lavin-Raghavan 1999; Mehta-Raghavan 2002; Feldman 2016). While there has been a long line of work, dating back to (Pitt-Valiant 1988), establishing the hardness of properly learning decision trees from random examples, the more challenging setting of query learners necessitates different techniques and there were no previous lower bounds. En route to our main result, we simplify and strengthen the best known lower bounds for a different problem of Decision Tree Minimization (Zantema-Bodlaender 2000; Sieling 2003). On a technical level, we introduce the notion of hardness distillation, which we study for decision tree complexity but can be considered for any complexity measure: for a function that requires large decision trees, we give a general method for identifying a small set of inputs that is responsible for its complexity. Our technique even rules out query learners that are allowed constant error. This contrasts with existing lower bounds for the setting of random examples which only hold for inverse-polynomial error. Our result, taken together with a recent almost-polynomial time query algorithm for properly learning decision trees under the uniform distribution (Blanc-Lange-Qiao-Tan 2022), demonstrates the dramatic impact of distributional assumptions on the problem.

Superpolynomial Lower Bounds for Decision Tree Learning and Testing

We establish new hardness results for decision tree optimization problems, adding to a line of work that dates back to Hyafil and Rivest in 1976. We prove, under randomized ETH, superpolynomial lower bounds for two basic problems: given an explicit representation of a function $f$ and a generator for a distribution $\mathcal{D}$, construct a small decision tree approximator for $f$ under $\mathcal{D}$, and decide if there is a small decision tree approximator for $f$ under $\mathcal{D}$. Our results imply new lower bounds for distribution-free PAC learning and testing of decision trees, settings in which the algorithm only has restricted access to $f$ and $\mathcal{D}$. Specifically, we show: $n$-variable size-$s$ decision trees cannot be properly PAC learned in time $n^{\tilde{O}(\log\log s)}$, and depth-$d$ decision trees cannot be tested in time $\exp(d^{\,O(1)})$. For learning, the previous best lower bound only ruled out $\text{poly}(n)$-time algorithms (Alekhnovich, Braverman, Feldman, Klivans, and Pitassi, 2009). For testing, recent work gives similar though incomparable bounds in the setting where $f$ is random and $\mathcal{D}$ is nonexplicit (Blais, Ferreira Pinto Jr., and Harms, 2021). Assuming a plausible conjecture on the hardness of Set-Cover, we show our lower bound for learning decision trees can be improved to $n^{\Omega(\log s)}$, matching the best known upper bound of $n^{O(\log s)}$ due to Ehrenfeucht and Haussler (1989). We obtain our results within a unified framework that leverages recent progress in two lines of work: the inapproximability of Set-Cover and XOR lemmas for query complexity. Our framework is versatile and yields results for related concept classes such as juntas and DNF formulas.

A Query-Optimal Algorithm for Finding Counterfactuals

We design an algorithm for finding counterfactuals with strong theoretical guarantees on its performance. For any monotone model $f : X^d \to \{0,1\}$ and instance $x^\star$, our algorithm makes \[ {S(f)^{O(\Delta_f(x^\star))}\cdot \log d}\] queries to $f$ and returns {an {\sl optimal}} counterfactual for $x^\star$: a nearest instance $x'$ to $x^\star$ for which $f(x')\ne f(x^\star)$. Here $S(f)$ is the sensitivity of $f$, a discrete analogue of the Lipschitz constant, and $\Delta_f(x^\star)$ is the distance from $x^\star$ to its nearest counterfactuals. The previous best known query complexity was $d^{\,O(\Delta_f(x^\star))}$, achievable by brute-force local search. We further prove a lower bound of $S(f)^{\Omega(\Delta_f(x^\star))} + \Omega(\log d)$ on the query complexity of any algorithm, thereby showing that the guarantees of our algorithm are essentially optimal.

Hyperprofile-based Computation Offloading for Mobile Edge Networks

In recent studies, researchers have developed various computation offloading frameworks for bringing cloud services closer to the user via edge networks. Specifically, an edge device needs to offload computationally intensive tasks because of energy and processing constraints. These constraints present the challenge of identifying which edge nodes should receive tasks to reduce overall resource consumption. We propose a unique solution to this problem which incorporates elements from Knowledge-Defined Networking (KDN) to make intelligent predictions about offloading costs based on historical data. Each server instance can be represented in a multidimensional feature space where each dimension corresponds to a predicted metric. We compute features for a "hyperprofile" and position nodes based on the predicted costs of offloading a particular task. We then perform a k-Nearest Neighbor (kNN) query within the hyperprofile to select nodes for offloading computation. This paper formalizes our hyperprofile-based solution and explores the viability of using machine learning (ML) techniques to predict metrics useful for computation offloading. We also investigate the effects of using different distance metrics for the queries. Our results show various network metrics can be modeled accurately with regression, and there are circumstances where kNN queries using Euclidean distance as opposed to rectilinear distance is more favorable.