2kenize: Tying Subword Sequences for Chinese Script Conversion

Simplified Chinese to Traditional Chinese character conversion is a common preprocessing step in Chinese NLP. Despite this, current approaches have poor performance because they do not take into account that a simplified Chinese character can correspond to multiple traditional characters. Here, we propose a model that can disambiguate between mappings and convert between the two scripts. The model is based on subword segmentation, two language models, as well as a method for mapping between subword sequences. We further construct benchmark datasets for topic classification and script conversion. Our proposed method outperforms previous Chinese Character conversion approaches by 6 points in accuracy. These results are further confirmed in a downstream application, where 2kenize is used to convert pretraining dataset for topic classification. An error analysis reveals that our method's particular strengths are in dealing with code-mixing and named entities.

SubjQA: A Dataset for Subjectivity and Review Comprehension

Subjectivity is the expression of internal opinions or beliefs which cannot be objectively observed or verified, and has been shown to be important for sentiment analysis and word-sense disambiguation. Furthermore, subjectivity is an important aspect of user-generated data. In spite of this, subjectivity has not been investigated in contexts where such data is widespread, such as in question answering (QA). We therefore investigate the relationship between subjectivity and QA, while developing a new dataset. We compare and contrast with analyses from previous work, and verify that findings regarding subjectivity still hold when using recently developed NLP architectures. We find that subjectivity is also an important feature in the case of QA, albeit with more intricate interactions between subjectivity and QA performance. For instance, a subjective question may or may not be associated with a subjective answer. We release an English QA dataset (SubjQA) based on customer reviews, containing subjectivity annotations for questions and answer spans across 6 distinct domains.

Generating Fact Checking Explanations

Most existing work on automated fact checking is concerned with predicting the veracity of claims based on metadata, social network spread, language used in claims, and, more recently, evidence supporting or denying claims. A crucial piece of the puzzle that is still missing is to understand how to automate the most elaborate part of the process -- generating justifications for verdicts on claims. This paper provides the first study of how these explanations can be generated automatically based on available claim context, and how this task can be modelled jointly with veracity prediction. Our results indicate that optimising both objectives at the same time, rather than training them separately, improves the performance of a fact checking system. The results of a manual evaluation further suggest that the informativeness, coverage and overall quality of the generated explanations are also improved in the multi-task model.

Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer with Meta Learning

Learning what to share between tasks has been a topic of great importance recently, as strategic sharing of knowledge has been shown to improve the performance of downstream tasks. In multilingual applications, sharing of knowledge between languages is important when considering the fact that most languages in the world suffer from being under-resourced. In this paper, we consider the setting of training models on multiple different languages at the same time, when English training data, but little or no in-language data is available. We show that this challenging setup can be approached using meta-learning, where, in addition to training a source language model, another model learns to select which training instances are the most beneficial. We experiment using standard supervised, zero-shot cross-lingual, as well as few-shot cross-lingual settings for different natural language understanding tasks (natural language inference, question answering). Our extensive experimental setup demonstrates the consistent effectiveness of meta-learning in a total of 16 languages. We improve upon the state-of-the-art for zero-shot and few-shot NLI and QA tasks on two NLI datasets (i.e., MultiNLI and XNLI), and on the X-WikiRE dataset, respectively. We further conduct a comprehensive analysis, which indicates that the correlation of typological features between languages can further explain when parameter sharing learned via meta-learning is beneficial.

Fact Check-Worthiness Detection as Positive Unlabelled Learning

A critical component of automatically combating misinformation is the detection of fact check-worthiness, i.e. determining if a piece of information should be checked for veracity. There are multiple isolated lines of research which address this core issue: check-worthiness detection from political speeches and debates, rumour detection on Twitter, and citation needed detection from Wikipedia. What is still lacking is a structured comparison of these variants of check-worthiness, as well as a unified approach to them. We find that check-worthiness detection is a very challenging task in any domain, because it both hinges upon detecting how factual a sentence is, and how likely a sentence is to be believed without verification. As such, annotators often only mark those instances they judge to be clear-cut check-worthy. Our best-performing method automatically corrects for this, using a variant of positive unlabelled learning, which learns when an instance annotated as not check-worthy should in fact have been annotated as being check-worthy. In applying this, we outperform the state of the art in two of the three domains studied for check-worthiness detection in English.

TX-Ray: Quantifying and Explaining Model-Knowledge Transfer in (Un-)Supervised NLP

While state-of-the-art NLP explainability (XAI) methods focus on supervised, per-instance end or diagnostic probing task evaluation[4, 2, 10], this is insufficient to interpret and quantify model knowledge transfer during (un-) supervised training. By instead expressing each neuron as an interpretable token-activation distribution collected over many instances, one can quantify and guide visual exploration of neuron-knowledge change between model training stages to analyze transfer beyond probing tasks and the per-instance level. This allows one to analyze: (RQ1) how neurons abstract knowledge during unsupervised pretraining; (RQ2) how pretrained neurons zero-shot transfer knowledge to new domain data; and (RQ3) how supervised tasks reorder pretrained neuron knowledge abstractions. Since the meaningfulness of XAI methods is hard to quantify [11, 4], we analyze three example learning setups (RQ1-3) to empirically verify that our method (TX-Ray): identifies transfer (ir-)relevant neurons for pruning (RQ3), and that its transfer metrics coincide with traditional measures like perplexity (RQ1). We also find, that TX-Ray guided pruning of supervision (ir-)relevant neuron-knowledge (RQ3) can identify `lottery ticket'-like [9, 40] neurons that drive model performance and robustness. Upon inspecting pruned neurons, we find that task-relevant neuron-knowledge (`tickets'), appear (over-)fit, while task-irrelevant neurons lower overfitting, i.e. TX-Ray identifies neurons that generalize, transfer or specialize model-knowledge [25]. Finally, through RQ1-3, we find that TX-Ray helps to explore and quantify dynamics of (continual) knowledge transfer and that it can shed light on neuron-knowledge specialization and generalization, to complement (costly) supervised probing task procurement and established `summary' statistics like perplexity, ROC or F scores.

Joint Emotion Label Space Modelling for Affect Lexica

Emotion lexica are commonly used resources to combat data poverty in automatic emotion detection. However, methodological issues emerge when employing them: lexica are often not very extensive, and the way they are constructed can vary widely -- from lab conditions to crowdsourced approaches and distant supervision. Furthermore, both categorical frameworks and dimensional frameworks coexist, in which theorists provide many different sets of categorical labels or dimensional axes. The heterogenous nature of the resulting emotion detection resources results in a need for a unified approach to utilising them. This paper contributes to the field of emotion analysis in NLP by a) presenting the first study to unify existing emotion detection resources automatically and thus learn more about the relationships between them; b) exploring the use of existing lexica for the above-mentioned task; c) presenting an approach to automatically combining emotion lexica, namely by a multi-view variational auto-encoder (VAE), which facilitates the mapping of datasets into a joint emotion label space. We test the utility of joint emotion lexica by using them as additional features in state-of-the art emotion detection models. Our overall findings are that emotion lexica can offer complementary information to even extremely large pre-trained models such as BERT. The performance of our models is comparable to state-of-the art models that are specifically engineered for certain datasets, and even outperform the state-of-the art on four datasets.

MultiFC: A Real-World Multi-Domain Dataset for Evidence-Based Fact Checking of Claims

We contribute the largest publicly available dataset of naturally occurring factual claims for the purpose of automatic claim verification. It is collected from 26 fact checking websites in English, paired with textual sources and rich metadata, and labelled for veracity by human expert journalists. We present an in-depth analysis of the dataset, highlighting characteristics and challenges. Further, we present results for automatic veracity prediction, both with established baselines and with a novel method for joint ranking of evidence pages and predicting veracity that outperforms all baselines. Significant performance increases are achieved by encoding evidence, and by modelling metadata. Our best-performing model achieves a Macro F1 of 49.2%, showing that this is a challenging testbed for claim veracity prediction.

Mapping (Dis-)Information Flow about the MH17 Plane Crash

Digital media enables not only fast sharing of information, but also disinformation. One prominent case of an event leading to circulation of disinformation on social media is the MH17 plane crash. Studies analysing the spread of information about this event on Twitter have focused on small, manually annotated datasets, or used proxys for data annotation. In this work, we examine to what extent text classifiers can be used to label data for subsequent content analysis, in particular we focus on predicting pro-Russian and pro-Ukrainian Twitter content related to the MH17 plane crash. Even though we find that a neural classifier improves over a hashtag based baseline, labeling pro-Russian and pro-Ukrainian content with high precision remains a challenging problem. We provide an error analysis underlining the difficulty of the task and identify factors that might help improve classification in future work. Finally, we show how the classifier can facilitate the annotation task for human annotators.