Early Flood Warning Using Satellite-Derived Convective System and Precipitation Data -- A Retrospective Case Study of Central Vietnam

This paper addresses the challenges of an early flood warning caused by complex convective systems (CSs), by using Low-Earth Orbit and Geostationary satellite data. We focus on a sequence of extreme events that took place in central Vietnam during October 2020, with a specific emphasis on the events leading up to the floods, i.e., those occurring before October 10th, 2020. In this critical phase, several hydrometeorological indicators could be identified thanks to an increasingly advanced and dense observation network composed of Earth Observation satellites, in particular those enabling the characterization and monitoring of a CS, in terms of low-temperature clouds and heavy rainfall. Himawari-8 images, both individually and in time-series, allow identifying and tracking convective clouds. This is complemented by the observation of heavy/violent rainfall through GPM IMERG data, as well as the detection of strong winds using radiometers and scatterometers. Collectively, these datasets, along with the estimated intensity and duration of the event from each source, form a comprehensive dataset detailing the intricate behaviors of CSs. All of these factors are significant contributors to the magnitude of flooding and the short-term dynamics anticipated in the studied region.

Assimilation of SWOT Altimetry and Sentinel-1 Flood Extent Observations for Flood Reanalysis -- A Proof-of-Concept

In spite of astonishing advances and developments in remote sensing technologies, meeting the spatio-temporal requirements for flood hydrodynamic modeling remains a great challenge for Earth Observation. The assimilation of multi-source remote sensing data in 2D hydrodynamic models participates to overcome such a challenge. The recently launched Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) wide-swath altimetry satellite provides a global coverage of water surface elevation at a high resolution. SWOT provides complementary observation to radar and optical images, increasing the opportunity to observe and monitor flood events. This research work focuses on the assimilation of 2D flood extent maps derived from Sentinel-1 C-SAR imagery data, and water surface elevation from SWOT as well as in-situ water level measurements. An Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) with a joint state-parameter analysis is implemented on top of a 2D hydrodynamic TELEMAC-2D model to account for errors in roughness, input forcing and water depth in floodplain subdomains. The proposed strategy is carried out in an Observing System Simulation Experiment based on the 2021 flood event over the Garonne Marmandaise catchment. This work makes the most of the large volume of heterogeneous data from space for flood prediction in hindcast mode paves the way for nowcasting.

Reducing Uncertainties of a Chained Hydrologic-hydraulic Model to Improve Flood Forecasting Using Multi-source Earth Observation Data

The challenges in operational flood forecasting lie in producing reliable forecasts given constrained computational resources and within processing times that are compatible with near-real-time forecasting. Flood hydrodynamic models exploit observed data from gauge networks, e.g. water surface elevation (WSE) and/or discharge that describe the forcing time-series at the upstream and lateral boundary conditions of the model. A chained hydrologic-hydraulic model is thus interesting to allow extended lead time forecasts and overcome the limits of forecast when using only observed gauge measurements. This research work focuses on comprehensively reducing the uncertainties in the model parameters, hydraulic state and especially the forcing data in order to improve the overall flood reanalysis and forecast performance. It aims at assimilating two main complementary EO data sources, namely in-situ WSE and SAR-derived flood extent observations.

Dealing With Non-Gaussianity of SAR-derived Wet Surface Ratio for Flood Extent Representation Improvement

Owing to advances in data assimilation, notably Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF), flood simulation and forecast capabilities have greatly improved in recent years. The motivation of the research work is to reduce comprehensively the uncertainties in the model parameters, forcing and hydraulic state, and consequently improve the overall flood reanalysis and forecast capability, especially in the floodplain. It aims at assimilating SAR-derived (typically from Sentinel-1 mission) flood extent observations, expressed in terms of wet surface ratio. The non-Gaussianity of the observation errors associated with the SAR flood observations violates a major hypothesis regarding the EnKF and jeopardizes the optimality of the filter analysis. Therefore, a special treatment of such non-Gaussianity with a Gaussian anamorphosis process is thus proposed. This strategy was validated and applied over the Garonne Marmandaise catchment (Southwest of France) represented with the TELEMAC-2D hydrodynamic model, focusing on a major flood event that occurred in December 2019. The assimilation of the SAR-derived wet surface ratio observations, in complement to the in-situ water surface elevations, is illustrated to consequentially improve the flood representation.

Gaussian Anamorphosis for Ensemble Kalman Filter Analysis of SAR-Derived Wet Surface Ratio Observations

Flood simulation and forecast capability have been greatly improved thanks to advances in data assimilation (DA) strategies incorporating various types of observations; many are derived from spatial Earth Observation. This paper focuses on the assimilation of 2D flood observations derived from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images acquired during a flood event with a dual state-parameter Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF). Binary wet/dry maps are here expressed in terms of wet surface ratios (WSR) over a number of subdomains of the floodplain. This ratio is further assimilated jointly with in-situ water-level observations to improve the flow dynamics within the floodplain. However, the non-Gaussianity of the observation errors associated with SAR-derived measurements break a major hypothesis for the application of the EnKF, thus jeopardizing the optimality of the filter analysis. The novelty of this paper lies in the treatment of the non-Gaussianity of the SAR-derived WSR observations with a Gaussian anamorphosis process (GA). This DA strategy was validated and applied over the Garonne Marmandaise catchment (South-west of France) represented with the TELEMAC-2D hydrodynamic model, first in a twin experiment and then for a major flood event that occurred in January-February 2021. It was shown that assimilating SAR-derived WSR observations, in complement to the in-situ water-level observations significantly improves the representation of the flood dynamics. Also, the GA transformation brings further improvement to the DA analysis, while not being a critical component in the DA strategy. This study heralds a reliable solution for flood forecasting over poorly gauged catchments thanks to available remote-sensing datasets.

Enhancing Flood Forecasting with Dual State-Parameter Estimation and Ensemble-based SAR Data Assimilation

Ensemble data assimilation in flood forecasting depends strongly on the density, frequency and statistics of errors associated with the observation network. This work focuses on the assimilation of 2D flood extent data, expressed in terms of wet surface ratio, in addition to the in-situ water level data. The objective is to improve the representation of the flood plain dynamics with a TELEMAC-2D model and an Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF). The EnKF control vector is composed of friction coefficients and corrective parameters to the input forcing. It is augmented with the water level state averaged over selected subdomains of the floodplain. This work focuses on the 2019 flood event that occurred over the Garonne Marmandaise catchment. The merits of assimilating SAR-derived flood plain data complementary to in-situ water level observations are shown in the control parameter and observation spaces with 1D and 2D assessment metrics. It was also shown that the assimilation of Wet surface Ratio in the flood plain complementary to in-situ data in the river bed brings significative improvement when a corrective term on flood plain hydraulic state is included in the control vector. Yet, it has barely no impact in the river bed that is sufficiently well described by in-situ data. We highlighted that the correction of the hydraulic state in the flood plain significantly improved the flood dynamics, especially during the recession. This proof-of-concept study paves the way towards near-real-time flood forecast, making the most of remote sensing-derived flood observations.

Assimilation of SAR-derived Flood Observations for Improving Fluvial Flood Forecast

As the severity and occurrence of flood events tend to intensify with climate change, the need for flood forecasting capability increases. In this regard, the Flood Detection, Alert and rapid Mapping (FloodDAM) project, funded by Space for Climate Observatory initiatives, was set out to develop pre-operational tools dedicated to enabling quick responses in flood-prone areas, and to improve the reactivity of decision support systems. This work focuses on the assimilation of 2D flood extent data (expressed in terms of wet surface ratios) and in-situ water level data to improve the representation of the flood plain dynamics with a Telemac-2D model and an Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF). The EnKF control vector was composed friction coefficients and corrective parameter to the input forcing. It is then augmented with the water level state averaged over several floodplain zones. This work was conducted in the context of Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSE) based on a real flood event occurred in January-February 2021 on the Garonne Marmandaise catchment. This allows to validate the observation operator associated to the wet surface ratio observations as well as the dual state-parameter sequential correction implemented in this work. The merits of assimilating SAR- derived flood plain data complementary to in-situ water level observations are shown in the control parameter and observation spaces with 1D and 2D assessment metrics. It was also shown that the correction of the hydraulic state significantly improved the flood dynamics, especially during the recession. This proof-of-concept study paves the way towards near-real-time flood forecast, making the most of remote sensing-derived flood observations.

Validation and Improvement of Data Assimilation for Flood Hydrodynamic Modelling Using SAR Imagery Data

Relevant comprehension of flood hazards has emerged as a crucial necessity, especially as the severity and the occurrence of flood events intensify with climate changes. Flood simulation and forecast capability have been greatly improved thanks to advances in data assimilation. This approach combines in-situ gauge measurements with hydrodynamic models, aiming to correct the hydraulic states and reduce the uncertainties in the model parameters, e.g., friction coefficients, inflow discharge. These methods depend strongly on the availability and quality of observations, thus requiring other data sources to improve the flood simulation and forecast quality. Sentinel-1 images collected during a flood event were used to classify an observed scene into dry and wet areas. The study area concerns the Garonne Marmandaise catchment, and focuses on recent flood event in January-February 2021. In this paper, seven experiments are carried out, two in free run modes (FR1 and FR2) and five in data assimilation modes (DA1 to DA5). A model-observation bias was diagnosed and corrected over the beginning of the flood event. Quantitative assessments are carried out involving 1D metrics at Vigicrue observing stations and 2D metrics with respect to the Sentinel-1 derived flood extent maps. They demonstrate improvements on flood extent representation thanks to the data assimilation and bias correction.

Improvement of Flood Extent Representation with Remote Sensing Data and Data Assimilation Applied to Hydrodynamic Numerical Models

Flood simulation and forecast capability have been greatly improved thanks to advances in data assimilation. Such an approach combines in-situ gauge measurements with numerical hydrodynamic models to correct the hydraulic states and reduce the uncertainties in the model parameters. However, these methods depend strongly on the availability and quality of observations, thus necessitating other data sources to improve the flood simulation and forecast performances. Using Sentinel-1 images, a flood extent mapping method was carried out by applying a Random Forest algorithm trained on past flood events using manually delineated flood maps. The study area concerns a 50-km reach of the Garonne Marmandaise catchment. Two recent flood events are simulated in analysis and forecast modes, with a +24h lead time. This study demonstrates the merits of using SAR-derived flood extent maps to validate and improve the forecast results based on hydrodynamic numerical models with Telemac2D-EnKF. Quantitative 1D and 2D metrics were computed to assess water level time-series and flood extents between the simulations and observations. It was shown that the free run experiment without DA under-estimates flooding. On the other hand, the validation of DA results with respect to independent SAR-derived flood extent allows to diagnose a model-observation bias that leads to over-flooding. Once this bias is taken into account, DA provides a sequential correction of area-based friction coefficients and inflow discharge, yielding a better flood extent representation. This study paves the way towards a reliable solution for flood forecasting over poorly gauged catchments, thanks to available remote sensing datasets.

Super-Resolution-based Snake Model -- An Unsupervised Method for Large-Scale Building Extraction using Airborne LiDAR Data and Optical Image

Automatic extraction of buildings in urban and residential scenes has become a subject of growing interest in the domain of photogrammetry and remote sensing, particularly since mid-1990s. Active contour model, colloquially known as snake model, has been studied to extract buildings from aerial and satellite imagery. However, this task is still very challenging due to the complexity of building size, shape, and its surrounding environment. This complexity leads to a major obstacle for carrying out a reliable large-scale building extraction, since the involved prior information and assumptions on building such as shape, size, and color cannot be generalized over large areas. This paper presents an efficient snake model to overcome such challenge, called Super-Resolution-based Snake Model (SRSM). The SRSM operates on high-resolution LiDAR-based elevation images -- called z-images -- generated by a super-resolution process applied to LiDAR data. The involved balloon force model is also improved to shrink or inflate adaptively, instead of inflating the snake continuously. This method is applicable for a large scale such as city scale and even larger, while having a high level of automation and not requiring any prior knowledge nor training data from the urban scenes (hence unsupervised). It achieves high overall accuracy when tested on various datasets. For instance, the proposed SRSM yields an average area-based Quality of 86.57% and object-based Quality of 81.60% on the ISPRS Vaihingen benchmark datasets. Compared to other methods using this benchmark dataset, this level of accuracy is highly desirable even for a supervised method. Similarly desirable outcomes are obtained when carrying out the proposed SRSM on the whole City of Quebec (total area of 656 km2), yielding an area-based Quality of 62.37% and an object-based Quality of 63.21%.