Is googling risky? A study on risk perception and experiences of adverse consequences in web search

Search engines, such as Google, have a considerable impact on society. Therefore, undesirable consequences, such as retrieving incorrect search results, pose a risk to users. Although previous research has reported the adverse outcomes of web search, little is known about how search engine users evaluate those outcomes. In this study, we show which aspects of web search are perceived as risky using a sample (N = 3,884) representative of the German Internet population. We found that many participants are often concerned with adverse consequences immediately appearing on the search engine result page. Moreover, participants' experiences with adverse consequences are directly related to their risk perception. Our results demonstrate that people perceive risks related to web search. In addition to our study, there is a need for more independent research on the possible detrimental outcomes of web search to monitor and mitigate risks. Apart from risks for individuals, search engines with a massive number of users have an extraordinary impact on society; therefore, the acceptable risks of web search should be discussed.

How search engine marketing influences user knowledge gain: Development and empirical testing of an information search behavior model

People use search engines to find answers to questions related to their health, finances, or other socially relevant issues. However, most users are unaware that search results are considerably influenced by search engine marketing (SEM). SEM measures are driven by commercial, political, or other motives. Due to these motivations, two questions arise: What information quality is mediated through SEM? And how is collecting documents of different quality affecting user knowledge gain? Both questions are not considered by existing models of information behavior. Hence, the doctoral research project described in this paper aims to develop and empirically test an information search behavior model on the influences of SEM on user knowledge gain and thereby contribute to the search as learning body of research.

Does Search Engine Optimization come along with high-quality content? A comparison between optimized and non-optimized health-related web pages

Searching for medical information is both a common and important activity since it influences decisions people make about their healthcare. Using search engine optimization (SEO), content producers seek to increase the visibility of their content. SEO is more likely to be practiced by commercially motivated content producers such as pharmaceutical companies than by non-commercial providers such as governmental bodies. In this study, we ask whether content quality correlates with the presence or absence of SEO measures on a web page. We conducted a user study in which N = 61 participants comprising laypeople as well as experts in health information assessment evaluated health-related web pages classified as either optimized or non-optimized. The subjects rated the expertise of non-optimized web pages as higher than the expertise of optimized pages, justifying their appraisal by the more competent and reputable appearance of non-optimized pages. In addition, comments about the website operators of the non-optimized pages were exclusively positive, while optimized pages tended to receive positive as well as negative assessments. We found no differences between the ratings of laypeople and experts. Since non-optimized, but high-quality content may be outranked by optimized content of lower quality, trusted sources should be prioritized in rankings.

Public awareness and attitudes towards search engine optimization

This research focuses on what users know about search engine optimization (SEO) and how well they can identify results that have potentially been influenced by SEO. We conducted an online survey with a sample representative of the German online population (N = 2,012). We found that 43% of users assume a better ranking can be achieved without paying money to Google. This is in stark contrast to the possibility of influence through paid advertisements, which 79% of internet users are aware of. However, only 29.2% know how ads differ from organic results. The term "search engine optimization" is known to 8.9% of users but 14.5% can correctly name at least one SEO tactic. Success in labelling results that can be influenced through SEO varies by search engine result page (SERP) complexity and devices: participants achieved higher success rates on SERPs with simple structures than on the more complex SERPs. SEO results were identified better on the small screen than on the large screen. 59.2% assumed that SEO has a (very) strong impact on rankings. SEO is more often perceived as positive (75.2%) than negative (68.4%). The insights from this study have implications for search engine providers, regulators, and information literacy.

Misplaced trust? The relationship between trust, ability to identify commercially influenced results, and search engine preference

People have a high level of trust in search engines, especially Google, but only limited knowledge of them, as numerous studies have shown. This leads to the question: To what extent is this trust justified considering the lack of familiarity among users with how search engines work and the business models they are founded on? We assume that trust in Google, search engine preferences, and knowledge of result types are interrelated. To examine this assumption, we conducted a representative online survey with n = 2,012 German internet users. We show that users with little search engine knowledge are more likely to trust and use Google than users with more knowledge. A contradiction revealed itself - users strongly trust Google, yet they are unable to adequately evaluate search results. This may be problematic since it can potentially affect knowledge acquisition. Consequently, there is a need to promote user information literacy to create a more solid foundation for user trust in search engines.