Device (In)Dependence of Deep Learning-based Image Age Approximation

The goal of temporal image forensic is to approximate the age of a digital image relative to images from the same device. Usually, this is based on traces left during the image acquisition pipeline. For example, several methods exist that exploit the presence of in-field sensor defects for this purpose. In addition to these 'classical' methods, there is also an approach in which a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is trained to approximate the image age. One advantage of a CNN is that it independently learns the age features used. This would make it possible to exploit other (different) age traces in addition to the known ones (i.e., in-field sensor defects). In a previous work, we have shown that the presence of strong in-field sensor defects is irrelevant for a CNN to predict the age class. Based on this observation, the question arises how device (in)dependent the learned features are. In this work, we empirically asses this by training a network on images from a single device and then apply the trained model to images from different devices. This evaluation is performed on 14 different devices, including 10 devices from the publicly available 'Northumbria Temporal Image Forensics' database. These 10 different devices are based on five different device pairs (i.e., with the identical camera model).

Content Bias in Deep Learning Age Approximation: A new Approach Towards more Explainability

In the context of temporal image forensics, it is not evident that a neural network, trained on images from different time-slots (classes), exploit solely age related features. Usually, images taken in close temporal proximity (e.g., belonging to the same age class) share some common content properties. Such content bias can be exploited by a neural network. In this work, a novel approach that evaluates the influence of image content is proposed. This approach is verified using synthetic images (where content bias can be ruled out) with an age signal embedded. Based on the proposed approach, it is shown that a `standard' neural network trained in the context of age classification is strongly dependent on image content. As a potential countermeasure, two different techniques are applied to mitigate the influence of the image content during training, and they are also evaluated by the proposed method.