Cheetah: Bridging the Gap Between Machine Learning and Particle Accelerator Physics with High-Speed, Differentiable Simulations

Machine learning has emerged as a powerful solution to the modern challenges in accelerator physics. However, the limited availability of beam time, the computational cost of simulations, and the high-dimensionality of optimisation problems pose significant challenges in generating the required data for training state-of-the-art machine learning models. In this work, we introduce Cheetah, a PyTorch-based high-speed differentiable linear-beam dynamics code. Cheetah enables the fast collection of large data sets by reducing computation times by multiple orders of magnitude and facilitates efficient gradient-based optimisation for accelerator tuning and system identification. This positions Cheetah as a user-friendly, readily extensible tool that integrates seamlessly with widely adopted machine learning tools. We showcase the utility of Cheetah through five examples, including reinforcement learning training, gradient-based beamline tuning, gradient-based system identification, physics-informed Bayesian optimisation priors, and modular neural network surrogate modelling of space charge effects. The use of such a high-speed differentiable simulation code will simplify the development of machine learning-based methods for particle accelerators and fast-track their integration into everyday operations of accelerator facilities.

Learning to Do or Learning While Doing: Reinforcement Learning and Bayesian Optimisation for Online Continuous Tuning

Online tuning of real-world plants is a complex optimisation problem that continues to require manual intervention by experienced human operators. Autonomous tuning is a rapidly expanding field of research, where learning-based methods, such as Reinforcement Learning-trained Optimisation (RLO) and Bayesian optimisation (BO), hold great promise for achieving outstanding plant performance and reducing tuning times. Which algorithm to choose in different scenarios, however, remains an open question. Here we present a comparative study using a routine task in a real particle accelerator as an example, showing that RLO generally outperforms BO, but is not always the best choice. Based on the study's results, we provide a clear set of criteria to guide the choice of algorithm for a given tuning task. These can ease the adoption of learning-based autonomous tuning solutions to the operation of complex real-world plants, ultimately improving the availability and pushing the limits of operability of these facilities, thereby enabling scientific and engineering advancements.