Thermopneumatic Pixels for Fast, Localized, Low-Voltage Touch Feedback

We present thermopneumatic pixels (TPPs), which are tactile actuators designed for rapid fabrication and straightforward integration into compact wearable and surface-based haptic systems. Each TPP converts low-voltage ($\sim$10 V) electrical pulses into transient pressure increases within a sealed cavity, producing out-of-plane forces and displacements suitable for tactile stimulation. The architecture enables scalable fabrication and spatially distributed actuation while maintaining simple electrical interfacing. The TPPs are constructed from inexpensive, readily available materials using straightforward layer-based assembly, facilitating rapid prototyping and integration into interactive devices. Mechanical characterization demonstrates peak forces exceeding 1 N and millimeter displacements. We further present driving electronics for operating multiple TPP modules concurrently and report perceptual study results demonstrating the effectiveness of the resulting tactile feedback. Together, these results establish low-voltage thermopneumatic actuation as an accessible and high-performance approach for embedding tactile feedback into experimental and consumer-facing interfaces.