Background-Foreground Segmentation for Interior Sensing in Automotive Industry

To ensure safety in automated driving, the correct perception of the situation inside the car is as important as its environment. Thus, seat occupancy detection and classification of detected instances play an important role in interior sensing. By the knowledge of the seat occupancy status, it is possible to, e.g., automate the airbag deployment control. Furthermore, the presence of a driver, which is necessary for partially automated driving cars at the automation levels two to four can be verified. In this work, we compare different statistical methods from the field of image segmentation to approach the problem of background-foreground segmentation in camera based interior sensing. In the recent years, several methods based on different techniques have been developed and applied to images or videos from different applications. The peculiarity of the given scenarios of interior sensing is, that the foreground instances and the background both contain static as well as dynamic elements. In data considered in this work, even the camera position is not completely fixed. We review and benchmark three different methods ranging, i.e., Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM), Morphological Snakes and a deep neural network, namely a Mask R-CNN. In particular, the limitations of the classical methods, GMM and Morphological Snakes, for interior sensing are shown. Furthermore, it turns, that it is possible to overcome these limitations by deep learning, e.g.\ using a Mask R-CNN. Although only a small amount of ground truth data was available for training, we enabled the Mask R-CNN to produce high quality background-foreground masks via transfer learning. Moreover, we demonstrate that certain augmentation as well as pre- and post-processing methods further enhance the performance of the investigated methods.

Gradient-Based Quantification of Epistemic Uncertainty for Deep Object Detectors

Reliable epistemic uncertainty estimation is an essential component for backend applications of deep object detectors in safety-critical environments. Modern network architectures tend to give poorly calibrated confidences with limited predictive power. Here, we introduce novel gradient-based uncertainty metrics and investigate them for different object detection architectures. Experiments on the MS COCO, PASCAL VOC and the KITTI dataset show significant improvements in true positive / false positive discrimination and prediction of intersection over union as compared to network confidence. We also find improvement over Monte-Carlo dropout uncertainty metrics and further significant boosts by aggregating different sources of uncertainty metrics.The resulting uncertainty models generate well-calibrated confidences in all instances. Furthermore, we implement our uncertainty quantification models into object detection pipelines as a means to discern true against false predictions, replacing the ordinary score-threshold-based decision rule. In our experiments, we achieve a significant boost in detection performance in terms of mean average precision. With respect to computational complexity, we find that computing gradient uncertainty metrics results in floating point operation counts similar to those of Monte-Carlo dropout.

Validation of Simulation-Based Testing: Bypassing Domain Shift with Label-to-Image Synthesis

Many machine learning applications can benefit from simulated data for systematic validation - in particular if real-life data is difficult to obtain or annotate. However, since simulations are prone to domain shift w.r.t. real-life data, it is crucial to verify the transferability of the obtained results. We propose a novel framework consisting of a generative label-to-image synthesis model together with different transferability measures to inspect to what extent we can transfer testing results of semantic segmentation models from synthetic data to equivalent real-life data. With slight modifications, our approach is extendable to, e.g., general multi-class classification tasks. Grounded on the transferability analysis, our approach additionally allows for extensive testing by incorporating controlled simulations. We validate our approach empirically on a semantic segmentation task on driving scenes. Transferability is tested using correlation analysis of IoU and a learned discriminator. Although the latter can distinguish between real-life and synthetic tests, in the former we observe surprisingly strong correlations of 0.7 for both cars and pedestrians.

SegmentMeIfYouCan: A Benchmark for Anomaly Segmentation

State-of-the-art semantic or instance segmentation deep neural networks (DNNs) are usually trained on a closed set of semantic classes. As such, they are ill-equipped to handle previously-unseen objects. However, detecting and localizing such objects is crucial for safety-critical applications such as perception for automated driving, especially if they appear on the road ahead. While some methods have tackled the tasks of anomalous or out-of-distribution object segmentation, progress remains slow, in large part due to the lack of solid benchmarks; existing datasets either consist of synthetic data, or suffer from label inconsistencies. In this paper, we bridge this gap by introducing the "SegmentMeIfYouCan" benchmark. Our benchmark addresses two tasks: Anomalous object segmentation, which considers any previously-unseen object category; and road obstacle segmentation, which focuses on any object on the road, may it be known or unknown. We provide two corresponding datasets together with a test suite performing an in-depth method analysis, considering both established pixel-wise performance metrics and recent component-wise ones, which are insensitive to object sizes. We empirically evaluate multiple state-of-the-art baseline methods, including several specifically designed for anomaly / obstacle segmentation, on our datasets as well as on public ones, using our benchmark suite. The anomaly and obstacle segmentation results show that our datasets contribute to the diversity and challengingness of both dataset landscapes.

Inspect, Understand, Overcome: A Survey of Practical Methods for AI Safety

The use of deep neural networks (DNNs) in safety-critical applications like mobile health and autonomous driving is challenging due to numerous model-inherent shortcomings. These shortcomings are diverse and range from a lack of generalization over insufficient interpretability to problems with malicious inputs. Cyber-physical systems employing DNNs are therefore likely to suffer from safety concerns. In recent years, a zoo of state-of-the-art techniques aiming to address these safety concerns has emerged. This work provides a structured and broad overview of them. We first identify categories of insufficiencies to then describe research activities aiming at their detection, quantification, or mitigation. Our paper addresses both machine learning experts and safety engineers: The former ones might profit from the broad range of machine learning topics covered and discussions on limitations of recent methods. The latter ones might gain insights into the specifics of modern ML methods. We moreover hope that our contribution fuels discussions on desiderata for ML systems and strategies on how to propel existing approaches accordingly.

Improving Video Instance Segmentation by Light-weight Temporal Uncertainty Estimates

Instance segmentation with neural networks is an essential task in environment perception. However, the networks can predict false positive instances with high confidence values and true positives with low ones. Hence, it is important to accurately model the uncertainties of neural networks to prevent safety issues and foster interpretability. In applications such as automated driving the detection of road users like vehicles and pedestrians is of highest interest. We present a temporal approach to detect false positives and investigate uncertainties of instance segmentation networks. Since image sequences are available for online applications, we track instances over multiple frames and create temporal instance-wise aggregated metrics of uncertainty. The prediction quality is estimated by predicting the intersection over union as performance measure. Furthermore, we show how to use uncertainty information to replace the traditional score value from object detection and improve the overall performance of instance segmentation networks.

Entropy Maximization and Meta Classification for Out-Of-Distribution Detection in Semantic Segmentation

Deep neural networks (DNNs) for the semantic segmentation of images are usually trained to operate on a predefined closed set of object classes. This is in contrast to the "open world" setting where DNNs are envisioned to be deployed to. From a functional safety point of view, the ability to detect so-called "out-of-distribution" (OoD) samples, i.e., objects outside of a DNN's semantic space, is crucial for many applications such as automated driving. A natural baseline approach to OoD detection is to threshold on the pixel-wise softmax entropy. We present a two-step procedure that significantly improves that approach. Firstly, we utilize samples from the COCO dataset as OoD proxy and introduce a second training objective to maximize the softmax entropy on these samples. Starting from pretrained semantic segmentation networks we re-train a number of DNNs on different in-distribution datasets and consistently observe improved OoD detection performance when evaluating on completely disjoint OoD datasets. Secondly, we perform a transparent post-processing step to discard false positive OoD samples by so-called "meta classification". To this end, we apply linear models to a set of hand-crafted metrics derived from the DNN's softmax probabilities. In our experiments we consistently observe a clear additional gain in OoD detection performance, cutting down the number of detection errors by up to 52% when comparing the best baseline with our results. We achieve this improvement sacrificing only marginally in original segmentation performance. Therefore, our method contributes to safer DNNs with more reliable overall system performance.

A Convenient Infinite Dimensional Framework for Generative Adversarial Learning

In recent years, generative adversarial networks (GANs) have demonstrated impressive experimental results while there are only a few works that foster statistical learning theory for GANs. In this work, we propose an infinite dimensional theoretical framework for generative adversarial learning. Assuming the class of uniformly bounded $k$-times $\alpha$-H\"older differentiable and uniformly positive densities, we show that the Rosenblatt transformation induces an optimal generator, which is realizable in the hypothesis space of $\alpha$-H\"older differentiable generators. With a consistent definition of the hypothesis space of discriminators, we further show that in our framework the Jensen-Shannon divergence between the distribution induced by the generator from the adversarial learning procedure and the data generating distribution converges to zero. Under sufficiently strict regularity assumptions on the density of the data generating process, we also provide rates of convergence based on concentration and chaining.

YOdar: Uncertainty-based Sensor Fusion for Vehicle Detection with Camera and Radar Sensors

In this work, we present an uncertainty-based method for sensor fusion with camera and radar data. The outputs of two neural networks, one processing camera and the other one radar data, are combined in an uncertainty aware manner. To this end, we gather the outputs and corresponding meta information for both networks. For each predicted object, the gathered information is post-processed by a gradient boosting method to produce a joint prediction of both networks. In our experiments we combine the YOLOv3 object detection network with a customized $1D$ radar segmentation network and evaluate our method on the nuScenes dataset. In particular we focus on night scenes, where the capability of object detection networks based on camera data is potentially handicapped. Our experiments show, that this approach of uncertainty aware fusion, which is also of very modular nature, significantly gains performance compared to single sensor baselines and is in range of specifically tailored deep learning based fusion approaches.

MetaDetect: Uncertainty Quantification and Prediction Quality Estimates for Object Detection

In object detection with deep neural networks, the box-wise objectness score tends to be overconfident, sometimes even indicating high confidence in presence of inaccurate predictions. Hence, the reliability of the prediction and therefore reliable uncertainties are of highest interest. In this work, we present a post processing method that for any given neural network provides predictive uncertainty estimates and quality estimates. These estimates are learned by a post processing model that receives as input a hand-crafted set of transparent metrics in form of a structured dataset. Therefrom, we learn two tasks for predicted bounding boxes. We discriminate between true positives ($\mathit{IoU}\geq0.5$) and false positives ($\mathit{IoU} < 0.5$) which we term meta classification, and we predict $\mathit{IoU}$ values directly which we term meta regression. The probabilities of the meta classification model aim at learning the probabilities of success and failure and therefore provide a modelled predictive uncertainty estimate. On the other hand, meta regression gives rise to a quality estimate. In numerical experiments, we use the publicly available YOLOv3 network and the Faster-RCNN network and evaluate meta classification and regression performance on the Kitti, Pascal VOC and COCO datasets. We demonstrate that our metrics are indeed well correlated with the $\mathit{IoU}$. For meta classification we obtain classification accuracies of up to 98.92% and AUROCs of up to 99.93%. For meta regression we obtain an $R^2$ value of up to 91.78%. These results yield significant improvements compared to other network's objectness score and other baseline approaches. Therefore, we obtain more reliable uncertainty and quality estimates which is particularly interesting in the absence of ground truth.